{"id":26487,"date":"2024-02-18T12:12:02","date_gmt":"2024-02-18T12:12:02","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/?p=26487"},"modified":"2024-02-22T14:49:56","modified_gmt":"2024-02-22T14:49:56","slug":"transcultural-mediterranean-in-chinese-travelogues-oumei-manyou-riji-as-a-case-study","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/volume-19-no-1-2024\/new-article-double-blind-peer-review-volume-19-no-1-2024\/transcultural-mediterranean-in-chinese-travelogues-oumei-manyou-riji-as-a-case-study\/","title":{"rendered":"Transcultural Mediterranean in the History of Chinese Travelogues: Oumei manyou riji as a Case Study"},"content":{"rendered":"\n\n\n\t
\n\n\t\t<\/i><\/span> <\/a>\n\n\t<\/div>\n\n\n\n\n\n

Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n

The Mediterranean[1]<\/sup><\/a> is commonly perceived not only as the cradle of Europe, but also as a conceptual region that cannot be enclosed by the traditional idea of national borders;[2]<\/sup><\/a> the region may be indeed better defined by its natural delimitations.[3]<\/sup><\/a> Even though its symbolic meaning for European societies is well acknowledged, very few studies have attempted to investigate the perception of the Mediterranean by the Chinese people, exploring its formation, development, and relevance. More specifically, this article aims to assess if and to what extent the Mediterranean came to be described and perceived as a transcultural space in China, taking as a case study a fundamental but unknown travelogue, Oumei manyou riji<\/em> \u6b50\u7f8e\u6f2b\u904a\u65e5\u8a18 [Diary of a journey in Europe and the United States]. Given that the Mediterranean has been defined not as \u201cun passage, mais d\u2019innombrables paysages. Non pas une mer, mais une succession de mers. Non pas une civilisation, mais des civilisations entass\u00e9es les unes sur les autres,\u201d[4]<\/sup><\/a> it would be difficult to aim for an all-encompassing representation in the limited span of an article. For this reason, I decided to focus on the description in Oumei manyou riji<\/em> of relics both as cultural finds and comparison examples. In fact, as brilliantly described by Predrag Matvejevi\u0107, \u201cMediteran nije samo zemljopis\u201d[5]<\/sup><\/a> [the Mediterranean is not only geography] and should be described adopting other perspectives than mere geographical ones. Even though descriptions of people might work as well for the purpose of this article, I decided not to concentrate on those provided by Chen Yifu and Chen Dayou, since they are one of the most difficult themes when dealing with the Mediterranean.[6]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

The choice of both Oumei manyou riji<\/em> and the Mediterranean as a focus is not a coincidence. The former is a fundamental milestone in the late Qing and Republican era odeporic production. The authors of this travelogue, almost unknown in present secondary literature, are Chen Yifu \u9673\u4e00\u752b (1869\u20131948) and his son Chen Dayou \u9673\u9054\u6709 (exact dates unknown); they were not literati or diplomats, as were most of the authors of previous travelogues of this period, but were known in the first place as entrepreneurs. They were, however, well integrated into the scholarly milieu of the epoch: famous personalities, such as Yang Shounan \u694a\u58fd\u678f (1868\u20131948), Jin Liang \u91d1\u6881 (1878\u20131962), and Zhao Yuanli \u8d99\u5143\u79ae (1868\u20131939), wrote the prefaces and annotations for Oumei manyou riji<\/em>. Both this integration in the world of scholars and the entrepreneurial formation account for the specific role of Oumei manyou riji<\/em>. As evidenced in secondary literature,[7]<\/sup><\/a> Chen Yifu\u2019s background was strongly linked to his historic era, and consequently this was true also of his (and his son\u2019s) travelogue: he was a renowned patriotic entrepreneur in a semi-colonial China and dedicated his life to revitalising his country mainly through industrial development.<\/p>\n

The Mediterranean, on the other hand, has always been intimately linked to China. It was Marco Polo, a Mediterranean, who discovered and presented China to his Western contemporaries;[8]<\/sup><\/a> we shall see further on in this article the connection between Polo\u2019s city of birth, Venice, and China. Furthermore, previous research has already drawn a fruitful comparison between the historical layers of the Mediterranean and those of China.[9]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

    \n
  1. The first steps toward Europe<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    According to research by the anthropologist David Tomas,[10]<\/sup><\/a> cross-cultural contact contributes to the formation of spatial zones between opposing cultures, particularly \u201cwhen cultural elements, such as material artefacts and human bodies, are deployed against or are projected into alien territories.\u201d These zones between cultures can be indeed described as transcultural spaces; even though such spaces are difficult to perceive, given their transitory nature, and are the \u201cephemera of cultural contact,\u201d they are worth studying for a variety of reasons. In fact, they penetrated the Chinese cultural layers, also thanks to the contribution of the first explorers of the Song and Yuan dynasties, continuing with the Jesuit and Protestant missionaries, until the production of travel diaries, especially after the first Chinese diplomatic mission to the West in 1866.<\/p>\n

    As for the transcultural representation in Oumei manyou riji<\/em>, before switching to artefacts and cultural relics, we shall start the analysis of the representations of Chen Yifu and Chen Dayou\u2019s trip with one of the most noteworthy relevant topics: food. Food is indeed considered a transcultural commonplace par excellence and \u201chas long been used as a powerful means to establish and maintain relationships with individuals and groups.\u201d[11]<\/sup><\/a> Chinese people travelling with the Chens felt the necessity to bring their own chef, since there were many Chinese on the ship from Shanghai to Europe (Chen 1937, p. 9B:[12]<\/sup><\/a> \u201c\u6b64\u5916\u6709\u83ef\u5eda\u4e00\u4eba\u5c08\u4f5c\u83ef\u9910\u84cb\u6211\u570b\u65c5\u5ba2\u751a\u591a\u4e5f\u201d). Even though in Oumei manyou riji<\/em> we can read different descriptions of travellers from China integrating well with others on board the ship, they all felt the need of keeping food as a connection with their motherland; indeed, cookbooks were an instrument used in European colonies to retain ties with the motherland, as well as for group solidarity,[13]<\/sup><\/a> and this was no exception.[14]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

    As hinted above, one of the peculiarities of the diary is the distinct cultural and working background of the Chens when compared to authors of previous travelogues;[15]<\/sup><\/a> this discrepancy is projected in many representations of foreign cultural and material landscapes within Oumei manyou riji<\/em>. For example, Chen Yifu and Chen Dayou\u2019s entrepreneurial experience is mirrored in the descriptions of the ship they were travelling on, with numerous data and technical terminology about engineering aspects of their travel, such as fuel consumption and boat parts, or details about the speed of different means of transport they were moving with. This information was provided by the authors in brackets in English.<\/p>\n

    Oumei manyou riji<\/em> is also representative of the social stratification and the view that Chinese travellers thought Westerners had on the topic. The Chens, in fact, describe in detail the classes in which the ship was divided, focusing in particular on the presence of many Indians (\u201c\u5370\u4eba\u201d). Among them, they reflect Chinese people\u2019s surprise at the fact that men wore earrings and women had rings or pearls on their noses. Also, according to the author of Oumei manyou riji<\/em>, as the section close to the infirmary was extremely dirty, all passengers passing near it had to hold their noses, given that \u201cWesterners pay utmost attention to hygiene\u201d (Chen 1937, p. 9B: \u201c\u6709\u7d71\u8259\u5747\u4e0b\u7b49\u793e\u6703\u4eba\u58eb\u5176\u4e2d\u5370\u4eba\u751a\u5925\u7537\u591a\u5e36\u8033\u74b0\u5973\u6709\u7a7f\u9f3b\u5b54\u4ee5\u74b0\u6216\u73e0\u8005\u8259\u5167\u6c61\u7a62\u6700\u5947\u8005\u8239\u4e0a\u91ab\u5ba4\u5373\u5728\u5176\u65c1\u65c5\u5ba2\u83ab\u4e0d\u63a9\u9f3b\u800c\u904e\u897f\u4eba\u6700\u91cd\u885b\u751f\u201d).<\/p>\n

    Oumei manyou riji<\/em> can be read as a source of historical information, provided by Chen Yifu and his son through the prism of their travel account. They mention (Chen 1937, p. 10A) a picture taken by a certain \u201c\u8cc0\u516c\u4f7f,\u201d conceivably a reference to the general He Yaozu \u8cc0\u8000\u7d44 (Ho Yao-tsu, 1889\u20131961), who was ambassador to Turkey between 1934 and 1936. Allusions to other political figures are scattered throughout the travelogue: \u201c\u5f35\u8cc0\u4e8c\u516c\u4f7f\u201d includes a reference to perhaps Zhang Jingjiang \u5f35\u975c\u6c5f (Chang Ching-chiang, 1877\u20131950) or most likely to Zhang Huichang \u5f35\u60e0\u9577 (Chang Wai-jung 1899\u20131980), ambassador to Cuba from 1935 to 1937.<\/p>\n

    Of course, as on a modern cruise, the authors of the travelogue also enjoyed moments of leisure: they focus in particular on a night-time dance party (Chen 1937, p. 10B) in which we read about a wonderful Asian woman and an Italian man dressed as an Arabian dancer moving on the stage (\u201c\u67d0\u83ef\u5973\u58eb\u98fe\u65d7\u88dd\u751a\u83ef\u9e97\u76e7\u590f\u4e8c\u5973\u58eb\u4ea6\u5747\u53c3\u52a0\u4e5d\u6642\u594f\u97f3\u6a02\u821e\u8005\u767b\u5834\u7d19\u689d\u7d1b\u98db\u4e9f\u5f62\u71b1\u9b27\u5c24\u4ee5\u4e00\u610f\u570b\u7537\u5b50\u4f5c\u963f\u62c9\u4f2f\u821e\u8005\u6700\u70ba\u51fa\u8272\u201d). \u201cTranscultural masquerades\u201d as well are \u201ccharacterized by mimicry, alterity, and the tensions and pleasures,\u201d which are associated with the cultural diversity of the age of colonialism.[16]<\/sup><\/a> The Chens thought this masquerade was worth recording in their travelogue, perhaps because it could convey a feeling of exoticism to attract more readers.<\/p>\n

      \n
    1. The Mediterranean as a cultural landscape<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      The real immersion in the atmosphere of what we commonly perceive as the Mediterranean starts after their arrival in Cairo. The Chens focus on the climate of the capital city and its Egyptian museum (Chen 1937, p. 11A), where a lot of relics on display strike the Chinese travellers\u2019 attention. The authors carefully describe the rationale behind the idea of mummies (\u201c\u53e4\u7269\u591a\u7a2e\u9673\u5217\u9580\u524d\u591a\u77f3\u68fa\u77f3\u50cf\u5747\u6975\u9f90\u5927\u6a13\u4e0a\u6709\u6728\u4e43\u4f0a[Mummy]\u591a\u5177\u57c3\u53ca\u4eba\u4fe1\u9748\u9b42\u4e0d\u6ec5\u4e4b\u8aaa\u201d), including notes on the process of preservation of bodies and of sarcophagi. The Chinese travellers are particularly struck by the sarcophagus of \u201cTutan Khamen.\u201d We find in this passage for the first time a storytelling technique often used in Oumei manyou riji<\/em>: the analogous products back in the Chens\u2019 motherland, China, would pale in comparison with the exquisiteness of the techniques of Egyptian objects and artefacts (\u201c\u88fd\u9020\u4e4b\u5de7\u5999\u96d5\u523b\u4e4b\u7cbe\u7dfb\u76f4\u4f7f\u6211\u6771\u65b9\u53e4\u570b\u9000\u907f\u4e09\u820d\u201d).[17]<\/sup><\/a> At times, as shown later in the article, this technique is applied instead to point out weaknesses of Western artefacts or values, providing examples of transcultural comparisons and highlighting the Chens\u2019 mixture of pride and confrontation towards their own culture.<\/p>\n

      The Chens complain about the lack of time to properly appreciate the museum and its contents in Cairo. After a short break in the hotel, the convoy proceeds to visit other relics, including the pyramids and the Sphinx. On the journey from their hotel to their destination, the travellers had to pass through a portion of desert and change cars for camels; Oumei manyou riji<\/em> adopts this break from the cultural immersion in the Egyptian landscape\u2014both natural and cultural\u2014to provide a description (Chen 1937, p. 12A) of the temperament of camels and linguistic considerations as to why in Chinese pyramids are called jinzita<\/em> \u91d1\u5b57\u5854, also furnishing detailed information on their measurements, as was typical with the Chens\u2019 entrepreneur background.<\/p>\n

      According to the traditional vision that pyramids were essentially either the embodiment of Egyptians\u2019 mathematical knowledge or the representation of historical authority,[18]<\/sup><\/a> the Chens analyse them as products that were built so the power of the Pharaoh could be perceived concretely by his subjects (\u201c\u5c0f\u6c11\u671b\u800c\u751f\u754f\u5176\u541b\u4e3b\u5a01\u6b0a\u53ef\u898b\u4e00\u6591\u201d).<\/p>\n

      The stay in Egypt is distinguished by the insistent mention of the unfavourable weather conditions, for example when travellers had to step off the camels and strongly felt the heat. After paying a gratuity, they were allowed into the pyramid, where they finally found refreshment from the scorching temperature while the guide, who could speak English, explained the interiors (Chen 1937, p. 12A).<\/p>\n

      Once the convoy finished visiting Cairo, it headed for a boat to Port Said, in which we read a description of men wearing hats and women with black veils on their heads, similar to Chinese Buddhist nuns; the Chens compare them to Western sisters (\u201c\u6b64\u8655\u7537\u5b50\u591a\u8457\u571f\u8033\u5176\u5f0f\u5e3d\u7a7f\u5bec\u5927\u9577\u888d\u985e\u6211\u570b\u50e7\u4fb6\u5973\u591a\u982d\u62ab\u9ed1\u7d17\u7531\u5f8c\u89c0\u4e4b\u7565\u4f3c\u897f\u6d0b\u5973\u6559\u58eb\u201d).<\/p>\n

      An important portion of the convoy\u2019s passage in Egypt is significantly devoted to the description of the Suez Canal, which passengers learnt about through a small booklet they purchased (\u201c\u6563\u6b65\u6ce2\u8cfd\u8857\u4e2d\u8cfc\u5f97\u904b\u6cb3\u7565\u5716\u4e00\u518a\u9644\u6709\u7c21\u77ed\u8aaa\u660e\u5c0d\u6df7\u5408\u4e4b\u6b77\u53f2\u7565\u5f97\u6897\u6982\u201d). Even though the Suez Canal cannot be considered a relic, it is indeed a fundamental leg for Chen Yifu and Chen Dayou as Chinese travellers: the Suez Canal is one of the two doors to the Mediterranean and also served as privileged access to the sea for many Chinese travellers to Europe after 1869.[19]<\/sup><\/a> As reported in detail in Oumei manyou riji<\/em>, the booklet narrated the history of the canal: after conquering Egypt, Napoleon once planned to excavate the canal in order to connect the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. However, given a mistake in the measurement,[20]<\/sup><\/a> the feat could not be accomplished. It was the French diplomat and entrepreneur Ferdinand de Lesseps (1805\u20131894) who would promote and complete the construction, which the authors provide specific information on, including depth, width, and measurement. Before that, communications between Europe and Asia could pass only through the Cape of Good Hope. As was typical with their practical backgrounds, the Chens detail the shortened distances between various cities in the two continents before and after 1869 and, most of all, the cost of the construction. According to the Oumei manyou riji<\/em>, half of the financial capital was provided by the French and half by \u201cMohommed Said\u201d (sic.: in Chinese \u8cfd\u6c0f, Chen 1937, 12B), a reference to the Egyptian political figure Mohamed Sa\u2019id Pasha (1822\u20131863). Control, however, was soon gained by England; in fact, by December 1875, the British government became a large shareholder of the Suez Canal Company, owning forty-four percent of the shares, only one percentage point less than France.[21]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

      According to Chen, most of the boats crossing the canal were consequently those of France and England, but some were also from the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Norway, Japan, the USA, and even the extremely small Free City of Danzig. Compared to the number of foreign vessels, Chinese boats were never seen crossing the Suez Canal, as supposedly confirmed to the Chens by a long-standing local worker (\u201c\u65bc\u4e00\u516b\u516d\u4e5d\u5e74\u6240\u904e\u8239\u8236\u4ee5\u82f1\u6cd5\u70ba\u591a\u8377\u5fb7\u610f\u632a\u65e5\u7f8e\u6b21\u4e4b\u5373\u855e\u723e\u5766\u6fa4\u81ea\u7531\u5e02\u4ea6\u6709\u8239\u96bb\u901a\u904e\u7368\u5177\u6709\u842c\u9918\u91cc\u6d77\u5cb8\u4e4b\u6211\u570b\u7adf\u4ed8\u7f3a\u5982\u7121\u602a\u6709\u5de5\u4f5c\u65bc\u8a72\u6cb3\u6578\u5341\u5e74\u8005\u7adf\u4ee5\u672a\u898b\u6211\u570b\u8239\u96bb\u70ba\u7570\u4e5f\u201d). As seen in other examples throughout this article, complaints by the authors on China\u2019s attitude compared to other visited countries are not uncommon in Oumei manyou riji.<\/em> At times, therefore, not only the Mediterranean, but more generally the West, is used both as a transcultural paradigm and a cross-cultural comparison example to point out the weakness of their native land. The opposite is also true: instances where Chen Yifu and Chen Dayou\u2019s commitment and pride for their native country point to deficiencies in the places they visited are not uncommon (see, among others, Chen 1937, 27B: \u5ee3\u5834\u4e4b\u6771\u820a\u6642\u57ce\u57a3\u7336\u5b58\u60df\u751a\u77ee\u5c0f\u7121\u6211\u570b\u57ce\u57a3\u4e4b\u96c4\u58ef: \u201cAncient bastions are located East of the square, but rather short and small; they cannot compare to the magnificence of bastions in my country\u201d).[22]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

        \n
      1. Italy as the main Mediterranean goal, between cultural relics and comparisons<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        Other than Egypt, the main representative of the Mediterranean in Chen Yifu and Chen Dayou\u2019s Oumei manyou riji<\/em> is Italy; a substantial portion of the diary is devoted to the peninsula for a variety of personal and historical reasons.[23]<\/sup><\/a> The authors describe Italy as the cradle of beautiful landscapes (\u201c\u4eba\u8a00\u610f\u5927\u5229\u70ba\u85dd\u8853\u6df5\u85ea\u4fe1\u4e0d\u8aa3\u4e5f\u201d; Chen 1937, p. 13A); the first detailed introduction to the country is about Venice and the Doge\u2019s palace (\u201c\u7e3d\u5236\u5e9c\u201d).<\/p>\n

        Venice is presented as the city of water, with no signs whatsoever of chariots (\u201c\u6709\u6fa4\u570b\u4e4b\u7a31\u51fa\u9580\u9664\u6b65\u884c\u5916\u6982\u9808\u4e58\u8239\u7121\u8eca\u99ac\u8e2a\u8de1,\u201d Chen 1937, p. 13A), and as the first city in order of importance in Italy and Europe as well. That is why, as the saying goes, you can skip visiting Rome, but you cannot miss sightseeing in Venice (\u201c\u610f\u5927\u5229\u4e4b\u672c\u51a0\u5168\u6b50\u800c\u5a01\u5c3c\u65af\u53c8\u70ba\u8c6a\u5546\u5bcc\u8cc8\u6240\u96c6\u6545\u6709\u752f\u4e0d\u904a\u7f85\u99ac\u4e0d\u53ef\u4e0d\u904a\u5a01\u5c3c\u65af\u4e4b\u8afa\u8a9e,\u201d Chen 1937, p. 13A).[24]<\/sup><\/a> This infatuation for the city of Venice is a pervasive topic in Chinese literature and related textual production, starting at least from the fourteenth century and the well-known account of Marco Polo (1254\u20131324); in fact, the Italian city has been long compared with the Chinese city of Suzhou. Even though the presence of bridges in the latter[25]<\/sup><\/a>\u2014although at times overestimated in numbers\u2014makes the comparison plausible, there is a subtle difference in the way Suzhou itself was interpreted: while Europeans perceived it mainly through the comparison with Venice, Chinese, Japanese, and other East Asians could \u201cappreciate Suzhou on its own terms\u2014or rather, in terms of its preeminence in scholarly Chinese culture […].[26]<\/sup><\/a> The opposite, however, is not true for Chen Yifu and Chen Dayou\u2019s travelogue: Venice is not examined in comparison with Suzhou, but only for its personal beauty and cultural relics. In Oumei manyou riji<\/em> the Italian city is particularly praised for its mosaics (\u201c\u6587\u77f3\u201d): with their different colours and patterns, mosaics are an Italian specialty, as the Chens put it, making the buildings of Venice similar to oil paintings (\u201c\u4ee5\u5404\u8272\u788e\u77f3\u780c\u6210\u5404\u7a2e\u82b1\u6a23\u5982\u4eba\u7269\u82b1\u9ce5\u5efa\u7bc9\u7b49\u9060\u89c0\u8207\u6cb9\u756b\u7121\u7570[…]\u6b64\u70ba\u610f\u5927\u5229\u7279\u7522\u767c\u6e90\u65bc\u8332\u5730\u201d; Chen 1937, p. 13B).<\/p>\n

        Like contemporary tourists, the members of the convoy are fascinated by the antiquity of Venice\u2019s buildings, St. Mark\u2019s Church in particular, dating back to the eleventh century, according to the authors\u2019 information (\u201c\u8056\u99ac\u53ef\u6559\u5802\u5373\u6709\u5341\u4e00\u4e16\u7d00\u7269,\u201d Chen 1937, p. 13B). An interesting switch in the narration can be read here: \u201c\u96a8\u7236\u89aa\u53ca\u4fde\u541b[…]\u201d [following my father and Mister Yu…]. We might infer that the whole diary is narrated from the point of view of Chen Dayou, reporting the words his father Yifu dictated, and that only at times the paternal figure emerges; however, we do not know who the Mister Yu referred to is.<\/p>\n

        The description of St. Mark\u2019s Square is extremely detailed. The Chens emphasise it as the most flourishing and beautiful part of Venice, and dedicate a careful representation of the square itself, St. Mark\u2019s Campanile, its peculiar pigeons, and the general atmosphere of the city (\u201c\u9418\u6a13\u9020\u65bc\u5341\u4e94\u4e16\u7d00[…]\u98db\u9d3f\u6210\u7fa3\u7567\u4e0d\u754f\u4eba\u98fc\u4e4b\u5247\u5c31\u624b\u4e2d\u4f86\u98df[…],\u201d Chen 1937, p. 13B). They particularly refer to the fact that on Sunday nights only music in the square could be heard, given that the musical penchant of Italian people was higher than all other countries. The Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari is the next step of their visit to the city; as usual in Oumei manyou riji<\/em>, the authors detail the time of completion of the church and information on the relics stored inside, such as the heart of the artist Antonio Canova (\u201c\u610f\u4eba\u97f3\u6a02\u8208\u8da3\u7368\u9ad8\u65bc\u5404\u570b\u4e5f[…]\u6b64\u8655\u6700\u83ef\u9e97\u6559\u5802\u4e4b\u4e00\u610f\u540d\u96d5\u523b\u5bb6\u574e\u558f\u74e6[…]\u846c\u5fc3\u65bc\u6b64,\u201d Chen 1937, p. 13B).<\/p>\n

        The bridge of Rialto elicits enthusiastic appraisals from father and son, particularly for its barrel vaults; the Chens heard from unspecified sources that the bridge has five to six hundred years of history, and the visit is a chance to buy some mosaics, as well as witness the glassblowing process taking place on the bridge stalls (\u201c\u5229\u5967\u723e\u9640\u6a4b[…]\u6709\u7a97\u9802\u5f62[…]\u7576\u5834\u88fd\u5404\u5668\u76bf\u4ee5\u793a\u4f5c\u6cd5,\u201d Chen 1937, p. 13B). Most of the workers of these stalls were women and their craftsmanship was so excellent that an expensive table could be sold for ten thousand liras, corresponding to approximately twenty thousand custom gold units,[27]<\/sup><\/a> literally leaving people breathless (\u201c\u5f80\u89c0\u88fd\u82b1\u908a\u8005\u591a\u5973\u5de5\u50f9\u4ea6\u5947\u6602\u4e00\u5927\u684c\u5e03\u82b1\u6a23\u70ba\u67d0\u540d\u4eba\u8a2d\u8a08\u552e\u5341\u842c\u91cc\u8033\u5408\u6211\u570b\u4e8c\u842c\u5143\u5de6\u53f3\u4ee4\u4eba\u548b\u820c,\u201d Chen 1937, pp. 13B\u201314A).<\/p>\n

        The description of St. Mark\u2019s Basilica the following day follows the same pattern seen in Oumei manyou riji<\/em>: it was built during the ninth century, but restored in the eleventh. In the passage we see for the first time in the travelogue an appreciation of Western cultural relics for their supposed resemblance with Oriental counterparts: the five cupolas on its top have an \u201cOriental feeling\u201d (\u201c\u5713\u9802\u4e94\u5c0a\u9817\u5177\u6771\u65b9\u6c23\u8c61,\u201d Chen 1937, p. 14A). This was due perhaps to the presence of four horses, brought from Constantinople and moved to Paris by Napoleon for only a short period; the fact that they were moved to other places during the First World War was an epitome of their value (\u201c\u56db\u9285\u99ac\u7acb\u9580\u4e0a\u9a30\u8e8d\u5982\u751f\u4e00\u4e8c\u96f6\u56db\u5e74\u7531\u541b\u58eb\u4f46\u4e01\u5821[…]\u4ee5\u6b64\u62ff\u7834\u5d19\u66fe\u79fb\u81f3\u5df4\u9ece\u4f46\u4e0d\u4e45\u5373\u6b78\u9084\u6b50\u6230\u6642\u4ea6\u5c07\u56db\u99ac\u85cf\u907f\u4ed6\u8655\u53ef\u8a3c\u5176\u5bf6\u8cb4,\u201d Chen 1937, p. 14A).<\/p>\n

        The convoy also visited the Doge\u2019s palace, with its famous painting \u201cIl paradiso\u201d [The paradise], probably the largest one in the world. The last stop before a visit to the Lido is St. Mark\u2019s Campanile. In this case, it is a hotel that is used as an example: the Excelsior, a new building in the Lido. There is a discrepancy, however, in the dates of construction reported in the travelogue: while it is true that the Excelsior opened in 1907 or 1908, in 1937 a new place was built close to it to host movie screenings, one of the most advanced movie theatres in Italy at that time and a success for the hotel as well.[28]<\/sup><\/a> The magnificence of the building, as well as the completeness of its interiors, filled Chen Yifu and Chen Dayou with regret that there was nothing comparable in similar seaside resorts in China, such as Qingdao and Beidaihe (\u201c\u6211\u570b\u9752\u5cf6\u5317\u6234\u6cb3\u8af8\u5730\u5373\u7121\u985e\u6b64\u8005,\u201d Chen 1937, pp. 14B).<\/p>\n

          \n
        1. History, literature, and other considerations on the road to France<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

          The journey of the convoy to Verona, passing by Padua and Vicenza, is a chance for the Chens to describe in careful detail the history of Romeo and Juliet, from the tragic plot to their burial site, to the history of the Verona Arena, compared with Rome\u2019s Colosseum. As read earlier in this article, this is not the first time that Chen Yifu and Chen Dayou mix various literary, historical, and broadly-defined cultural elements in Oumei manyou riji<\/em>; their travelogue is a testimony of both the places visited and their relevant cultural heritage. This should come as no surprise, since according to previous research, recording travel experiences can open various discourses on the others: \u201cFondamentalement discours sur l\u2019Autre, regard sur l\u2019h\u00e9t\u00e9rog\u00e8ne, le r\u00e9cit de voyage offre donc la perspective exaltante et d\u00e9multipli\u00e9e de l\u2019ouverture sur les discours des autres.\u201d[29]<\/sup><\/a> This enriches the travelogue, even though it makes it depart from its original heuristic intention: \u201cle voyage livresque qu\u2019il effectue le constitue en genre litt\u00e9raire mais le d\u00e9tourne de sa mission premi\u00e8re et heuristique, qui est de rendre compte du monde nouveau d\u00e9couvert.\u201d This link with reality makes the travelogue a factual text, keeping at the same time connections with fiction: \u201cAinsi, alors m\u00eame qu\u2019il est ancr\u00e9 dans le r\u00e9el, le r\u00e9cit de voyage\u2014genre dit \u00abfactuel\u00bb (Genette)\u2014entretient des liens avec la fiction.\u201d[30]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

          After crossing the border between France and Italy, in which to the Chens\u2019 surprise there was not much difference in the landscape, with the exception that Italian roads were better equipped (\u201c\u5165\u6cd5\u7adf\u5f8c\u6cbf\u9014\u98a8\u666f\u8207\u610f\u76f8\u540c\u516c\u8def\u53ca\u5176\u8a2d\u5099\u8f03\u5dee\u6216\u610f\u591a\u65b0\u7bc9\u4e4b\u8def\u201d Chen 1937, p. 28A), the convoy arrives in Nice. Chen Yifu and Chen Dayou take note of the extremely high prices of local meals, with the cost of a meal equivalent to one month of school meals in China (\u201c\u6bcf\u9910\u53ef\u6577\u4f59\u5728\u570b\u5167\u5b78\u6821\u4e00\u6708\u98ef\u8cbb\u201d).<\/p>\n

          A visit to the Casino de la Jet\u00e9e, dismantled only a few years after their visit to Europe, was their next stop after a short break in the hotel. As soon as they got inside the building, the visitors were asked about their ages. Mister Xia, one of the members of the convoy, replied twenty-one, since according to the regulations, people under that age were not allowed inside. The authors describe the one-hour tour inside the casino and some of the attractions, including dance representations\u2014this is also a chance to compare them to the relevant shows in China, this time to the detriment of the latter (\u201c\u8df3\u821e\u96d6\u7121\u5947\u7279\u7136\u8f03\u5728\u6211\u570b\u6240\u89c0\u8005\u83ef\u9e97\u591a\u77e3\u201d Chen 1937, p. 28B). A more involved visit to the Monument aux Morts, honouring the fallen of the First World War, is brushed off with few characters: \u201c\u539f\u8def\u6b78\u7d93\u65c5\u820d\u81f3\u6b50\u6230\u7d00\u5ff5\u724c\u201d (We went back on the same road, passing by the hotel and stopping at the Monument aux Morts). The visit to the city of Nice is concluded with climatological considerations about the Mediterranean; Nice is in fact known for its Mediterranean climate among the Chinese, even though there were different opinions in other accounts of the time, particularly pertaining to the city\u2019s famous \u201cvent de Bise.\u201d[31]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

          Conclusions<\/strong><\/p>\n

          In Oumei manyou riji<\/em>, the Mediterranean appears at first glance as a collection of places, more than a unitarian, even if fluid, entity. Chen Yifu and Chen Dayou\u2019s background as entrepreneurs justifies the presence of technicalities and description of infrastructures; their \u201chidden\u201d role as scholars, however, surprisingly entails descriptions of cultural and immaterial landscapes of the cities visited, from Egypt to Italy to France, from Port Said to Nice to Venice. The pattern used for the descriptions of historical landscapes and cultural relics in the travelogue is indeed almost the same throughout the text: a brief introduction, with historical information highlighting the old history of the relic itself, and considerations about the cultural and historical novelty of the place visited. Most of the time, however, this was only meant to arouse the reader\u2019s interest more than out of a sense of pure exoticism\u2014and comparisons from different perspectives and different outcomes with similar products in the motherland. It is exactly the last point that makes it possible to consider the description of the Mediterranean in Oumei manyou riji<\/em> as \u201ctranscultural\u201d: at times, these comparisons take the form of the authors using the countries visited as an epitome to point out what they consider weaknesses of their motherland, at times weaknesses\u2014from various perspectives\u2014of the Western countries visited.<\/p>\n

          The transcultural production depicted, including cultural artefacts and relics, is an extremely complex matter: \u201cthe space of transcultural art is not Euclidean, but interstitial\u2014between cultures, experience and imagination, memory and loss, desire and anxiety, and dream and reality.\u201d[32]<\/sup><\/a> The art described by the Chens places itself exactly at the intersection between two or even more different cultures, the imagination, experience, and expectations of the traveller and the entrepreneur, and of the Chens\u2019 desire for their country to imitate\u2014or reject\u2014the places and relics they saw.<\/p>\n

          On the other hand, contrary to the tangible artefacts and cultural relics presented in Oumei manyou riji<\/em>, the contact zones produced by travel narratives are imaginary. These zones can be described as \u201catopia,\u201d a term that Roland Bartes indicated as a product of texts: \u201cle syst\u00e8me est en lui d\u00e9bord\u00e9, d\u00e9fait.\u201d[33]<\/sup><\/a> The atopic space of transcultural arts has spatialities and temporalities that \u201cmay offer cultural self-criticism or a momentary interrogation […]\u201d:[34]<\/sup><\/a> this was exactly the case of the Chens\u2019 descriptions of Europe, and the Mediterranean in particular, with self-criticism and interrogations for a possible model for China, as well as judgements and suggestions on the Western countries visited.<\/p>\n

          Chen Yifu and Chen Dayou\u2019s travels can indeed be considered a mixture of three of the five steps in the so-called \u201c\u6e38\u5386\u7684\u4e94\u751f\u578b\u5f0f (five shengs pattern of experoutination)\u201d:[35]<\/sup><\/a> the \u201cindustrial experoutination\u201d (shengye<\/em> \u751f\u4e1a), the \u201cidealistic experoutination\u201d (shengsi<\/em> \u751f\u601d), and the \u201ctrade experoutination\u201d (shengyi<\/em> \u751f\u6613). Although it most likely started due to the first intention, in order to study the industrial technologies of Western countries, Oumei manyou riji<\/em> resulted in a pleasant and culturally-connotated text, particularly pertaining to the Mediterranean section of the travels, to which most of the text is dedicated. This is mostly due to the father and son\u2019s background and the unique era China was going through at the time: in the semi-colonial era after the Opium War, China\u2019s view of the West was especially complicated. The fear and shame brought by the defeat in war and colonisation, the admiration of new technology, and the yearning for a modern society form a mixture of pride and confrontation towards the Chens\u2019 own culture. Chen Yifu was a patriotic entrepreneur and philanthropist in this era, and his determination and contribution to revitalise China through industrial development are renowned and evident within the written characters of Oumei manyou riji<\/em>.[36]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

          More generally, the two \u201cworlds\u201d presented in this article, the Mediterranean and China, were always connected; in fact, they were two of the main passages in the travels around the Old World. However, until the nineteenth century, there was an imbalance between the European knowledge of China, and the knowledge of Europe and the Mediterranean by the Chinese people.[37]<\/sup><\/a> The odeporic production put into records starting from the first mission to Europe in 1866 tried to successfully fill that gap. The admiration, and at times criticism, by the father and son recorded in their travelogue and analysed in many episodes above is derived exactly from this discrepancy and the complicated historical factors of China\u2019s history in the second half of the nineteenth century and the first part of the twentieth century.<\/p>\n

           <\/p>\n

          References<\/strong><\/p>\n

          Abulafia, David. The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean<\/em>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.<\/p>\n

          Barthes, Roland. Le plaisir du texte<\/em>. Paris: \u00c9ditions du Seuil, 1973.<\/p>\n

          Ben-Zaken, Avner. Cross-Cultural Scientific Exchanges in the Eastern Mediterranean, 1560\u20131660<\/em>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010.<\/p>\n

          Bescherer Metheny, Karen, and Mary C. Beaudry (eds.). Archaeology of Food: An Encyclopedia<\/em>. London: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015.<\/p>\n

          Braudel Fernand. La M\u00e9diterran\u00e9e: l\u2019espace et l\u2019histoire<\/em>. Paris: Flammarion, 1985.<\/p>\n

          Cabanas, Edgar, Razak Khan, and Jani Marjanen. \u201cTravellers: Transformative Journeys and Emotional Contacts.\u201d In Encounters with Emotions: Negotiating Cultural Differences since Early Modernity<\/em>, edited by Benno Gammerl, Philipp Nielsen, and Margrit Pernau, 61\u201384. New York: Berghahn Books, 2019.<\/p>\n

          Carroll Peter J. Between Heaven and Modernity: Reconstructing Suzhou, 1895\u20131937<\/em>. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006.<\/p>\n

          Centre de recherche sur la litte\u0301rature des voyages. Miroirs de textes: re\u0301cits de voyage et intertextualite\u0301<\/em>. Nice: Publications de la Faculte\u0301 des lettres, arts et sciences humaines de Nice, 1998.<\/p>\n

          Chen, Yifu \u9673\u4e00\u752b. Oumei manyou riji<\/em> \u6b50\u7f8e\u6f2b\u904a\u65e5\u8a18 [Diary of a journey in Europe and the United States]. 1937.<\/p>\n

          Codell, Julie F. (ed.). Transculturation in British Art, 1770\u20131930<\/em>. Reprinted edition. London; New York: Routledge, 2016.<\/p>\n

          Harrison, Robert T. Gladstone\u2019s Imperialism in Egypt: Techniques of Domination<\/em>. Greenwood Press: Westport, London, 1995.<\/p>\n

          Leininger, Madeleine. \u201cTranscultural Food Functions, Beliefs, and Practices.\u201d In Transcultural Nursing: Concepts, Theories, Research & Practice<\/em>, edited by Madeleine Leininger and Marilyn R. McFarland, 205\u2013216. New York: McGraw-Hill Education. Third edition, 2002.<\/p>\n

          Liu Shanling \u5218\u5584\u9f84. \u201cZhongguoren chu she Suyishi \u4e2d\u56fd\u4eba\u521d\u6d89\u82cf\u4f0a\u58eb\u201d [The first Chinese to cross the Suez Canal]. Xungen<\/em> \u5bfb\u6839 (2002) no. 3: 25\u201329.<\/p>\n

          Matvejevi\u0107, \u200ePredrag. Mediteranski brevijar<\/em>. Zagreb: Grafi\u010dki Zavod Hrvatske, 1990.<\/p>\n

          Matvejevi\u0107, \u200ePredrag (Silvio Ferrari, trans.). Mediterraneo: un nuovo breviario<\/em>. Milano: Garzanti, 1993.<\/p>\n

          Matvejevi\u0107, \u200ePredrag (\u200eHeim, Michael Henry, trans.). Mediterranean: A Cultural Landscape<\/em>. Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999.<\/p>\n

          May, Jan Andreas. \u201c\u00abQueen of the Arts\u00bb \u2014 Exhibitions, Festivals, and Tourism in Fascist Venice, 1922\u20131945.\u201d In Creative Urban Milieus: Historical Perspectives on Culture, Economy, and the City<\/em>, edited by Martina He\u00dfler and Clemens Zimmermann, 209\u2013227. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.<\/p>\n

          M\u2019Culloch, John Ramsay. A Dictionary, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical of the Various Countries, Places, and Principal Natural Objects in the World<\/em>. Vol. III. London: Longmans, Green, and Co, 1866.<\/p>\n

          Tignor, Robert L. Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945\u20131963<\/em>. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998.<\/p>\n

          Tola, Gabriele. \u201cAn Unknown Diary Across Italy and Europe: Oumei manyou riji<\/em> and the Late Chinese Rediscovery of the Other.\u201d Nordicum-Mediterraneum<\/em> 20 (in press) no. 1.<\/p>\n

          Tomas, David. Transcultural Space and Transcultural Beings<\/em>. Reprinted edition. New York: Routledge, 2018.<\/p>\n

          Wang, Yi-Wen, Christian Nolf. \u201cHistoric Landscape and Water Heritage of Suzhou Beyond the Tourist Gaze.\u201d In Suzhou in Transition<\/em>, edited by Beibei Tang and Paul Cheung, 42\u201386. London; New York: Routledge, 2021.<\/p>\n

          Wu Bihu \u5434\u5fc5\u864e, Huang Shanhui \u9ec4\u73ca\u8559, Zhong Lina \u949f\u680e\u5a1c, et al. \u201cYouli fazhan fenqi, xingshi yu yingxiang: yi ge yanjiu kuangjia de jiangou \u6e38\u5386\u53d1\u5c55\u5206\u671f\u3001\u578b\u5f0f\u4e0e\u5f71\u54cd\uff1a\u4e00\u4e2a\u7814\u7a76\u6846\u67b6\u7684\u5efa\u6784\u201d [Phases, patterns, and impacts of youli<\/em> (experoutination) development: building a research framework]. L\u00fcyou xuekan<\/em> \u65c5\u6e38\u5b66\u520a – Tourism Tribune<\/em> 37 (2022), no. 3: 50\u201367.<\/p>\n

           <\/p>\n

           <\/p>\n

          Endnotes<\/strong><\/p>\n

          [1]<\/sup><\/a> \u200eThis article was conceived from a conference panel, organised by Prof. Renata Vinci for the AISC (Italian Association for Chinese Studies) biennial meeting, held at Sapienza University of Rome in September 2023.<\/p>\n

          [2]<\/sup><\/a> \u200ePredrag Matvejevi\u0107 (\u200eMichael Henry Heim, trans.), Mediterranean: A Cultural Landscape<\/em> (Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999), 10 and passim.<\/p>\n

          [3]<\/sup><\/a> David Abulafia, The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean<\/em> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), xxiii\u2013xxiv.<\/p>\n

          [4]<\/sup><\/a> Fernand Braudel, La M\u00e9diterran\u00e9e: l\u2019espace et l\u2019histoire<\/em> (Paris: Flammarion, 1985), 8.<\/p>\n

          [5]<\/sup><\/a> \u200ePredrag Matvejevi\u0107, Mediteranski brevijar<\/em> (Zagreb: Grafi\u010dki Zavod Hrvatske, 1990), 13.<\/p>\n

          [6]<\/sup><\/a> \u200ePredrag Matvejevi\u0107 (\u200eSilvio Ferrari, trans.), Mediterraneo: un nuovo breviario<\/em> (Milano: Garzanti, 1993), 60.<\/p>\n

          [7]<\/sup><\/a> Gabriele Tola, \u201cAn Unknown Diary Across Italy and Europe: Oumei manyou riji<\/em> and the Late Chinese Rediscovery of the Other,\u201d Nordicum-Mediterraneum<\/em> 20 (in press) no. 1.<\/p>\n

          [8]<\/sup><\/a> Braudel, La M\u00e9diterran\u00e9e<\/em>, 75.<\/p>\n

          [9]<\/sup><\/a> Braudel, La M\u00e9diterran\u00e9e<\/em>, 157.<\/p>\n

          [10]<\/sup><\/a> David Tomas, Transcultural Space and Transcultural Beings<\/em> (Reprinted edition. New York: Routledge, 2018), 15. I would like to thank Dr. Mich\u00e8le Th\u00e9riault for providing me a copy of this text.<\/p>\n

          [11]<\/sup><\/a> Madeleine Leininger, \u201cTranscultural Food Functions, Beliefs, and Practices,\u201d in Transcultural Nursing: Concepts, Theories, Research & Practice<\/em>, ed. Madeleine Leininger, Marilyn R. McFarland (New York: McGraw-Hill Education. Third edition), 205.<\/p>\n

          [12]<\/sup><\/a> For the sake of legibility, quotations from Oumei manyou riji<\/em> are pointed out in this article without the addition of a footnote for each.<\/p>\n

          [13]<\/sup><\/a> Karen Bescherer Metheny, Mary C. Beaudry (eds.), Archaeology of Food: An Encyclopedia<\/em> (London: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015), 116.<\/p>\n

          [14]<\/sup><\/a> Other examples of transcultural comparisons, including Rome\u2019s Holy Stairs and Trevi Fountain are examined in Tola, \u201cAn Unknown Diary Across Italy and Europe.\u201d<\/p>\n

          [15]<\/sup><\/a> Tola, \u201cAn Unknown Diary Across Italy and Europe.\u201d<\/p>\n

          [16]<\/sup><\/a> Edgar Cabanas, Razak Khan, Jani Marjanen, \u201cTravellers: Transformative Journeys and Emotional Contacts,\u201d in Encounters with Emotions: Negotiating Cultural Differences since Early Modernity<\/em>, ed. Benno Gammerl, Philipp Nielsen, Margrit Pernau (New York: Berghahn Books, 2019), 70.<\/p>\n

          [17]<\/sup><\/a> The chengyu<\/em> used by Chen, tuibi san she<\/em> \u9000\u907f\u4e09\u820d, means to withdraw one she<\/em> (a unit of measurement roughly corresponding to thirty li <\/em>\u91cc) in order to avoid confrontation.<\/p>\n

          [18]<\/sup><\/a> Avner Ben-Zaken, Cross-Cultural Scientific Exchanges in the Eastern Mediterranean, 1560\u20131660<\/em> (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), 114\u2013115.<\/p>\n

          [19]<\/sup><\/a> Liu Shanling, \u201cZhongguoren chu she Suyishi,\u201d Xungen<\/em> (2002) no. 3: 25\u201329.<\/p>\n

          [20]<\/sup><\/a> A ten-metre difference between the two was wrongly calculated; see Robert T. Harrison, Gladstone\u2019s Imperialism in Egypt: Techniques of Domination<\/em> (Greenwood Press: Westport, London, 1995), 42.<\/p>\n

          [21]<\/sup><\/a> Robert L. Tignor, Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945\u20131963<\/em> (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 42.<\/p>\n

          [22]<\/sup><\/a> Tola, \u201cAn Unknown Diary Across Italy and Europe.\u201d<\/p>\n

          [23]<\/sup><\/a> Refer to Tola, \u201cAn Unknown Diary Across Italy and Europe.\u201d<\/p>\n

          [24]<\/sup><\/a> The saying, of which I was not able to trace the Italian version, presumably derives from one of the travel books Chen Yifu and Chen Dayou consulted or from the guide that was accompanying them and other travellers during the trip.<\/p>\n

          [25]<\/sup><\/a> Yi-Wen Wang, Christian Nolf, \u201cHistoric Landscape and Water Heritage of Suzhou Beyond the Tourist Gaze,\u201d in Suzhou in Transition<\/em>, ed. Beibei Tang, Paul Cheung (London; New York: Routledge, 2021), 69.<\/p>\n

          [26]<\/sup><\/a> Peter J. Carroll, Between Heaven and Modernity: Reconstructing Suzhou, 1895\u20131937<\/em> (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006), 4.<\/p>\n

          [27]<\/sup><\/a> The currency issued in China at the time of travel, known in Chinese as guanjinyuan<\/em> \u95dc\u91d1\u5713.<\/p>\n

          [28]<\/sup><\/a> Jan Andreas May, \u201c\u00abQueen of the Arts\u00bb \u2013 Exhibitions, Festivals, and Tourism in Fascist Venice, 1922\u20131945,\u201d in Creative Urban Milieus: Historical Perspectives on Culture, Economy, and the City<\/em>, ed. Martina He\u00dfler, Clemens Zimmermann (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 220.<\/p>\n

          [29]<\/sup><\/a> Centre de recherche sur la litte\u0301rature des voyages, Miroirs de textes: re\u0301cits de voyage et intertextualite\u0301<\/em> (Nice: Publications de la Faculte\u0301 des lettres, arts et sciences humaines de Nice, 1998), X.<\/p>\n

          [30]<\/sup><\/a> Centre de recherche sur la litte\u0301rature des voyages, Miroirs de textes<\/em>, XI.<\/p>\n

          [31]<\/sup><\/a> John Ramsay M\u2019Culloch, A Dictionary, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical of the Various Countries, Places, and Principal Natural Objects in the World<\/em>, vol. III (London: Longmans, Green, and Co, 1866), 437.<\/p>\n

          [32]<\/sup><\/a> Julie F. Codell (ed.), Transculturation in British Art, 1770\u20131930<\/em> (Reprinted edition. London; New York: Routledge, 2016), 9.<\/p>\n

          [33]<\/sup><\/a> Roland Barthes, Le plaisir du texte<\/em> (Paris: \u00c9ditions du Seuil, 1973), 49.<\/p>\n

          [34]<\/sup><\/a> Codell, Transculturation<\/em>, 10.<\/p>\n

          [35]<\/sup><\/a> Wu Bihu, Huang Shanhui, Zhong Lina, et al. \u201cYouli fazhan fenqi, xingshi yu yingxiang: yi ge yanjiu kuangjia de jiangou,\u201d L\u00fcyou xuekan<\/em> 37 (2022), no. 3: 61\u201362.<\/p>\n

          [36]<\/sup><\/a> This aspect is thoroughly analysed in Tola, \u201cAn Unknown Diary Across Italy and Europe.\u201d<\/p>\n

          [37]<\/sup><\/a> Wu Bihu, Huang Shanhui, Zhong Lina, et al. \u201cYouli fazhan fenqi,\u201d 55.<\/p>\n

          \n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

          Chen Yifu \u9673\u4e00\u752b (1869\u20131948) and his son Chen Dayou \u9673\u9054\u6709 (exact dates unknown) are the authors of a rare travelogue, Oumei manyou riji<\/em> \u6b50\u7f8e\u6f2b\u904a\u65e5\u8a18 [Diary of a journey in Europe and the United States]. The text is a fundamental milestone in the late Qing and Republican era odeporic production. As much as the father and son were well-known in the scholarly milieu of the epoch, they were in the first place entrepreneurs, not literati or diplomats, unlike most of the authors of previous travelogues of this historical phase. The focus of this article is the representation of the Mediterranean portion of the Chens\u2019 travels, particularly the description of relics both as cultural finds and as comparison examples. By highlighting fresh elements and representations that the authors\u2019 backgrounds involved, the article aims to assess if and to what extent the Mediterranean was perceived in Oumei manyou riji<\/em> as a \u201ctranscultural space,\u201d as defined by David Tomas, and what new research perspectives this provides for the study of late Qing and Republican era odeporic production.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":676,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_exactmetrics_skip_tracking":false,"_exactmetrics_sitenote_active":false,"_exactmetrics_sitenote_note":"","_exactmetrics_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[2411],"tags":[439,115],"coauthors":[2428],"class_list":["post-26487","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-new-article-double-blind-peer-review-volume-19-no-1-2024","tag-china","tag-mediterranean"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/26487","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/676"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=26487"}],"version-history":[{"count":11,"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/26487\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":30331,"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/26487\/revisions\/30331"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=26487"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=26487"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=26487"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/coauthors?post=26487"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}