{"id":247,"date":"2014-05-15T09:02:09","date_gmt":"2014-05-15T09:02:09","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/?p=247"},"modified":"2016-03-30T21:58:22","modified_gmt":"2016-03-30T21:58:22","slug":"stjornmal-og-visindi-edha-af-hverju-er-stundum-bulladh-svona-mikidh","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/09-2\/c64-conference-paper\/stjornmal-og-visindi-edha-af-hverju-er-stundum-bulladh-svona-mikidh\/","title":{"rendered":"Stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1l og v\u00edsindi: e\u00f0a af hverju er stundum bulla\u00f0 svona miki\u00f0?"},"content":{"rendered":"\n\n\n\t
\n\n\t\t<\/i><\/span> <\/a>\n\n\t<\/div>\n\n\n\n\n\n

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English-language synopsis of the paper<\/strong><\/p>\n

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Politics and science: Or why there is sometimes so much bullshit?<\/em><\/p>\n

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Science and politics as fields of human communication have many things in common. The following six statements apply to both:<\/p>\n

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  1. People present their believes and make statements.<\/li>\n
  2. The statements that people make are about the world.<\/li>\n
  3. People criticize the statements that are made about the world.<\/li>\n
  4. People use various kinds of data and evidence to support what they say.<\/li>\n
  5. Very few of the statements that are made are immune to criticism.<\/li>\n
  6. People use general principles or rules to understand and explain what the statements are about.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

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    Harry Frankfurt has written an essay called On Bullshit <\/i>(Frankfurt, 2005) in which he offers an analysis of what bullshit is and also tries to answer the questions why there is so much of it. Frankfurt writes:<\/p>\n

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    One of the most salient features of our culture is that there is so much bullshit. Everyone knows this. Each of us contributes his share. But we tend to take the situation for granted.<\/em> (Frankfurt, 2005, p. 1)<\/p>\n

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    Frankfurt notes that bullshit is typically unconnected to a concern with the truth. This can take several different forms. Furthermore, although bullshit is generally unconnected to a concern with the truth, it is different from lying.<\/p>\n

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    What bullshit essentially misrepresents is neither the state of affairs to which it refers nor the beliefs of the speaker concerning that state of affairs. Those are what lies misrepresent, by virtue of being false. Since bullshit need not be false, it differs from lies in its misrepresentational intent. The bullshitter may not deceive us, or even intend to do so, either about the facts or about what he takes the facts to be. What he does necessarily attempt to deceive us about is his enterprise. His only indispensably distinctive characteristic is that in a certain way he misrepresents what he is up to. (Frankfurt, 2005, p. 54)<\/p>\n

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    Turning to the question why there is so much bullshit in politics, the ideas of Georg Orwell are illuminating. He argues that accepting political responsibility means that one must obey a kind of political authority which makes it impossible to discuss certain things with full sincerity.<\/p>\n

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    But unfortunately, to accept political responsibility now means yielding oneself over to orthodoxies and \u2018party lines\u2019, with all the timidity and dishonesty that that implies. As against the Victorian writers, we have the disadvantage of living among clear-cut political ideologies and of usually knowing at a glance what thoughts are heretical. (Orwell, Writers and leviathan)<\/i><\/p>\n

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    Both in \u201cWriters and leviathan\u201c and in \u201cPolitics and the English language\u201c does Orwell discusses why the political culture tends to encourage people to misuse the language.<\/p>\n

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    In a recent talk, Mikael M. Karlsson suggests that the subject matter of ethics could be demarcated as the preconditions of willful human communication. This raises interesting questions about moral status of politics. Should one expect that a field of communication, which is characterized by lack of concern for truth, be willful human communication?<\/p>\n

    \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

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     <\/p>\n

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    \u00c9g vil byrja \u00e1 a\u00f0 velta fyrir m\u00e9r spurningunni: Hvernig hafa m\u00e1lin \u00fer\u00f3ast hj\u00e1 okkur? Og mig langar a\u00f0 hafa efnist\u00f6kin h\u00e1lf leibniz\u00edsk, \u00fe.e. einskor\u00f0a mig ekki vi\u00f0 l\u00edtinn h\u00f3p f\u00f3lks \u00e1 afm\u00f6rku\u00f0um t\u00edma heldur gj\u00f6rvalt mannkyn fr\u00e1 upphafi vega. Einhvers sta\u00f0ar aftur \u00ed forn\u00f6ld finnum vi\u00f0 fyrir mannskepnur sem hafa mj\u00f6g frumst\u00e6tt m\u00e1l og mj\u00f6g frumst\u00e6\u00f0 tj\u00e1skipti. Svo l\u00ed\u00f0ur t\u00edminn, tungum\u00e1lin \u00fer\u00f3ast og f\u00f3lk fer a\u00f0 eiga fl\u00f3kin samskipti. Loks rekumst vi\u00f0 \u00e1 samskipti sem einkennast af eftirfarandi atri\u00f0um.<\/p>\n

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    (1) F\u00f3lk setur fram sko\u00f0anir e\u00f0a sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingar.<\/p>\n

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    (2) \u00de\u00e6r sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingar sem f\u00f3lk setur fram eru um veruleikann.<\/p>\n

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    (3) F\u00f3lk gagnr\u00fdnir \u00fe\u00e6r sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingar sem settar eru fram um veruleikann.<\/p>\n

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    (4) F\u00f3lk notar margv\u00edsleg g\u00f6gn til a\u00f0 sty\u00f0ja \u00fea\u00f0 sem \u00fea\u00f0 heldur fram.<\/p>\n

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    (5) Mj\u00f6g f\u00e1ar sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingar, sem settar eru fram, eru \u00f3n\u00e6mar fyrir gagnr\u00fdni.<\/p>\n

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    (6) F\u00f3lk beitir almennum l\u00f6gm\u00e1lum e\u00f0a reglum til a\u00f0 skilja og r\u00f6ksty\u00f0ja \u00fea\u00f0 sem sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingarnar eru um.<\/p>\n

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    Samskipti sem einkennast af \u00feessum sex atri\u00f0um eru a\u00f0 s\u00f6nnu mj\u00f6g h\u00e1\u00fer\u00f3u\u00f0 og komu kannski ekki fram fyrr en fyrir nokkur \u00fe\u00fasund \u00e1rum. En hva\u00f0a svi\u00f0 mannlegra samskipta g\u00e6ti \u00feetta veri\u00f0? Einhverjum vir\u00f0ist kannski auglj\u00f3st a\u00f0 h\u00e9r s\u00e9 um a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a v\u00edsindin. Einkennast \u00feau ekki af \u00feessum sex \u00fe\u00e1ttum? \u00cd skemmtilegri grein sem Mikael M. Karlsson hefur hvergi birt leggur hann til eftirfarandi skilgreiningu \u00e1 v\u00edsindum:<\/p>\n

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    V\u00edsindi eru kerfisbundin og gagnr\u00fdnin leit a\u00f0 vi\u00f0eigandi skilningi \u00e1 l\u00f6gm\u00e1lsbundnum fyrirb\u00e6rum sem \u00e1 s\u00e9r sta\u00f0 innan ramma vi\u00f0urkenndra almennra vi\u00f0mi\u00f0a um hva\u00f0 telst s\u00f6nnunarg\u00f6gn og hvernig skuli fara me\u00f0 sl\u00edk g\u00f6gn<\/em>.[1]<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

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    \u00deessi skilgreining hefur me\u00f0al annars \u00feann kost a\u00f0 vera stutt og hnitmi\u00f0u\u00f0. Au\u00f0vita\u00f0 segir h\u00fan samt ekki mj\u00f6g miki\u00f0 nema ma\u00f0ur \u00fatsk\u00fdri frekar hva\u00f0 \u00e1tt s\u00e9 vi\u00f0 me\u00f0 or\u00f0um og or\u00f0asamb\u00f6ndum eins og \u201egagnr\u00fdnin leit\u201c, \u201evi\u00f0eigandi skilningur\u201c, \u201el\u00f6gm\u00e1lsbundin fyrirb\u00e6ri\u201c, \u201evi\u00f0urkennd almenn vi\u00f0mi\u00f0\u201c og \u201es\u00f6nnunarg\u00f6gn\u201c. Margt er \u00f3lj\u00f3st og \u00fea\u00f0 v\u00e6ri kannski h\u00e6filegt vi\u00f0fangsefni fyrir me\u00f0al n\u00e1mskei\u00f0 \u00ed v\u00edsindaheimspeki a\u00f0 \u00fatsk\u00fdra \u00feessi atri\u00f0i. \u00c9g \u00e6tla a\u00f0 l\u00e1ta \u00feau standa \u00f3\u00fatsk\u00fdr\u00f0 \u00feannig a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 \u00e6ttum kannski a\u00f0 l\u00edta \u00e1 \u00feessa skilgreiningu sem einhvers konar skema frekar en efnislega skilgreiningu. \u00c9g mun \u00fe\u00f3 koma a\u00f0 seinasta li\u00f0num s\u00ed\u00f0ar \u00ed \u00feessari grein.<\/p>\n

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    N\u00fa vil \u00e9g benda \u00e1 a\u00f0 \u00feessi sex atri\u00f0i sem einkenna v\u00edsindin sem vettvang samskipta eiga l\u00edka vi\u00f0 um stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lin. Stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1laumr\u00e6\u00f0a einkennist af \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 menn setja fram sko\u00f0anir, \u00feessar sko\u00f0anir eru gagnr\u00fdndar og f\u00e1tt er \u00f3n\u00e6mt fyrir gagnr\u00fdni \u00e1 \u00feeim vettvangi. Stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1laumr\u00e6\u00f0a er l\u00edka um veruleikann og er st\u00fatfull af allskyns v\u00edsunum \u00ed g\u00f6gn; t\u00f6lfr\u00e6\u00f0i, reynslus\u00f6gur og ranns\u00f3knir eru me\u00f0al \u00feess sem f\u00f3lk dregur fram m\u00e1li s\u00ednu til stu\u00f0nings. F\u00f3lk sty\u00f0st l\u00edka vi\u00f0 margv\u00edsleg almenn l\u00f6gm\u00e1l, b\u00e6\u00f0i \u00ed hagfr\u00e6\u00f0i og f\u00e9lagsv\u00edsindum, til a\u00f0 skilja og r\u00f6ksty\u00f0ja m\u00e1l sitt. Samt eru stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1l og v\u00edsindi mj\u00f6g \u00f3l\u00edk svi\u00f0 og eitt af \u00fev\u00ed sem gerir \u00feau svo \u00f3l\u00edk er allt bulli\u00f0 sem einkennir stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lin en ekki v\u00edsindin. Hvernig skyldi standa \u00e1 \u00feessu?<\/p>\n

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    Hva\u00f0 er bull?<\/b><\/p>\n

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    \u00dea\u00f0 er ekki n\u00fd tesa a\u00f0 stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1laumr\u00e6\u00f0a s\u00e9 full af bulli. Heimspekingar hafa samt ekki skrifa\u00f0 miki\u00f0 um hva\u00f0 bull s\u00e9 \u00fe\u00f3tt \u00feeir hafi annars skrifa\u00f0 \u00f3kj\u00f6rin \u00f6ll um stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1l og tungum\u00e1l. \u00c1 \u00feessu eru reyndar undantekningar. Fyrir nokkrum \u00e1rum gaf heimspekingurinn Harry Frankfurt \u00fat l\u00edti\u00f0 kver sem heitir einfaldlega On Bullshit<\/i> (Frankfurt, 2005) og myndi v\u00edsast heita \u00e1 \u00edslensku Um bull<\/i>. \u00cd \u00feessari b\u00f3k leitast Frankfurt vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 skilgreina hugtaki\u00f0 \u201ebullshit\u201c og jafnframt leita sk\u00fdringa \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed hvers vegna samt\u00edminn einkennist jafn miki\u00f0 af bulli og raunin er. Annar h\u00f6fundur sem skiptir m\u00e1li \u00ed \u00feessu sambandi er George Orwell, en \u00ed greinunum \u201eStj\u00f3rnm\u00e1l og ensk tunga\u201c og \u201eRith\u00f6fundar og lev\u00edatan\u201c fjallar hann um tungum\u00e1li\u00f0, hvernig \u00fev\u00ed er misbeitt og hvernig \u00feeir sem leggja sig fram um a\u00f0 nota \u00fea\u00f0 me\u00f0 tr\u00faver\u00f0ugum h\u00e6tti, t.d. rith\u00f6fundar, ver\u00f0a a\u00f0 for\u00f0ast vettvanga \u00fear sem beinl\u00ednis er gert r\u00e1\u00f0 fyrir a\u00f0 f\u00f3lk noti m\u00e1li\u00f0 me\u00f0 vafas\u00f6mum h\u00e6tti.[2]<\/span><\/a> En v\u00edkjum fyrst a\u00f0 Frankfurt. Hann byrjar b\u00f3kina On Bullshit<\/i> \u00e1 eftirfarandi or\u00f0um:<\/p>\n

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    Eitt af \u00fev\u00ed sem einkennir menningu okkar er hversu miki\u00f0 er af bulli. Allir vita \u00feetta. Hvert og eitt okkar leggur til sinn skerf. En vi\u00f0 vir\u00f0umst taka \u00e1standinu sem gefnu<\/em>. (Frankfurt, 2005, bls. 1)<\/p>\n

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    Eftir a\u00f0 hafa sko\u00f0a\u00f0 skilgreiningu Max Black \u00e1 or\u00f0inu \u201ehumbug\u201c sem Ensk-\u00edslensk or\u00f0ab\u00f3k \u00fe\u00fd\u00f0ir m.a. sem \u00fev\u00e6tting<\/i>, vitleysu<\/i>, uppger\u00f0arl\u00e6ti<\/i> og s\u00fdndarmennsku<\/i>, sn\u00fdr Frankfurt s\u00e9r a\u00f0 eiginlegri greiningu \u00e1 hugtakinu \u201ebull\u201c.<\/p>\n

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    Bull og vanvir\u00f0ing vi\u00f0 \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegar forsendur<\/i><\/p>\n

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    \u00cd \u00feessu litla kveri um bull segir Frankfurt m.a. s\u00f6gu sem hann hefur eftir Faniu Pascal, sem var vinkona Wittgensteins \u00e1 fj\u00f3r\u00f0a \u00e1ratuginum \u00ed Cambridge. Pascal hefur or\u00f0i\u00f0:<\/p>\n

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    \u00c9g f\u00f3r \u00ed h\u00e1lskirtlat\u00f6ku og var \u00e1 Evelyn hj\u00fakrunarheimilnu a\u00f0 vorkenna sj\u00e1lfri m\u00e9r. Wittgenstein hringdi. \u00c9g umla\u00f0i full sj\u00e1lfsvorkunnar: \u201eM\u00e9r l\u00ed\u00f0ur eins og hundi sem eki\u00f0 hefur veri\u00f0 yfir.\u201c Hann sag\u00f0i me\u00f0 \u00fej\u00f3sti: \u201e\u00de\u00fa veist ekkert um \u00fea\u00f0 hvernig hundi sem eki\u00f0 hefur veri\u00f0 yfir l\u00ed\u00f0ur.\u201c<\/em> (Frankfurt, 2005, bls. 24)<\/p>\n

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    Frankfurt getur s\u00e9r \u00feess til a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 sem hafi fari\u00f0 fyrir brj\u00f3sti\u00f0 \u00e1 Wittgenstein, og einmitt \u00fea\u00f0 sem skiptir m\u00e1li fyrir skilning okkar \u00e1 bulli, er a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 sem Pascal haf\u00f0i sagt var \u201e\u00f3tengt umhyggju fyrir sannleikanum\u201c (\u201eunconnected to a concern with the truth\u201c). \u00dea\u00f0 m\u00e1 vel segja a\u00f0 vi\u00f0brag\u00f0 Wittgensteins hafi veri\u00f0 n\u00e6sta fr\u00e1leitt og einkum til merkis um a\u00f0 hann hafi ekki skili\u00f0 a\u00f0 Pascal hafi bara veri\u00f0 a\u00f0 nota litr\u00edkt m\u00e1l til a\u00f0 l\u00fdsa l\u00ed\u00f0an sinni. \u00dea\u00f0 skiptir ekki m\u00e1li h\u00e9r \u00fev\u00ed okkur var\u00f0ar ekki um samskiptah\u00e6fileika Wittgensteins heldur skilning \u00e1 bulli. Og \u00fea\u00f0 sem skiptir m\u00e1li \u00ed \u00fev\u00ed sambandi er a\u00f0 Wittgenstein vir\u00f0ist l\u00edta svo \u00e1 a\u00f0 Pascal hafi veri\u00f0 a\u00f0 taka \u00fe\u00e1tt \u00ed m\u00e1lleik \u00fear sem greinarmunurinn \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed sem er satt og hinu sem er \u00f3satt skiptir m\u00e1li en \u00e1n \u00feess a\u00f0 taka alvarlega hvort \u00fea\u00f0 sem h\u00fan sag\u00f0i hafi heldur veri\u00f0 satt e\u00f0a \u00f3satt.<\/p>\n

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    H\u00e9r birtist skortur \u00e1 umhyggju fyrir sannleikanum \u00ed \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 eitthva\u00f0 er sagt, sem l\u00edtur \u00fat eins og l\u00fdsing \u00e1 sta\u00f0reynd en er \u00ed raun alltof \u00edtarlegt til a\u00f0 geta veri\u00f0 sl\u00edk l\u00fdsing. \u00dear fyrir utan gerir l\u00fdsing eins s\u00fa sem Pascal nota\u00f0i r\u00e1\u00f0 fyrir a\u00f0 h\u00fan hafi haft uppl\u00fdsingar sem h\u00fan sannarlega haf\u00f0i ekki og gat raunar alls ekki haft. Pascal gat vissulega geti\u00f0 s\u00e9r til um a\u00f0 hundi, sem eki\u00f0 hefur veri\u00f0 yfir, li\u00f0i ekki vel, en \u00fea\u00f0 er \u00f6rugglega svo miklu meira um l\u00ed\u00f0an sl\u00edkst hunds a\u00f0 segja en einfaldlega \u00fea\u00f0 a\u00f0 honum l\u00ed\u00f0i ekki vel, og h\u00fan haf\u00f0i engar forsendur til a\u00f0 \u00e6tla a\u00f0 hennar eigin l\u00ed\u00f0an v\u00e6ri einhvern veginn eins og l\u00ed\u00f0an sl\u00edkst hunds. H\u00e9r birtist skortur \u00e1 umhyggju fyrir sannleika \u00ed skorti \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 m\u00e1lnotandinn taki alvarlega \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegar forsendur \u00feess sem hann segir.<\/p>\n

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    Bull og \u00f3lj\u00f3s or\u00f0<\/i><\/p>\n

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    A\u00f0ra birtingarmynd \u00e1 skorti \u00e1 umhyggju fyrir sannleika m\u00e1 lesa \u00ed grein Orwells, \u201eStj\u00f3rnm\u00e1l og ensk tunga\u201c. \u00cd \u00feessari grein beinir Orwell athygli sinni a\u00f0 tilteknum or\u00f0um \u00fear sem einhvers konar tilfinningarlegt yfirbrag\u00f0 \u00feeirra hefur rutt \u00ed burtu eiginlegri merkinu.<\/p>\n

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    \u00dear sem um er a\u00f0 tefla or\u00f0 einsog l\u00fd\u00f0r\u00e6\u00f0i, \u00fe\u00e1 er ekki n\u00f3g me\u00f0 a\u00f0 ekki s\u00e9 til nein vi\u00f0ur\u00adkennd skilgreining, heldur hefur s\u00fa tilraun a\u00f0 b\u00faa hana til m\u00e6tt m\u00f3tst\u00f6\u00f0u \u00far \u00f6llum \u00e1ttum. \u00dea\u00f0 er n\u00e1nast undantekningarlaust liti\u00f0 svo \u00e1 a\u00f0 \u00feegar vi\u00f0 segjum a\u00f0 r\u00edki s\u00e9 l\u00fd\u00f0r\u00e6\u00f0islegt, \u00fe\u00e1 s\u00e9um vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 lofa \u00fea\u00f0; \u00fear af lei\u00f0ir a\u00f0 m\u00e1lsvarar hva\u00f0a stj\u00f3rnarfyrirkomulags sem er halda \u00fev\u00ed fram a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 s\u00e9 l\u00fd\u00f0r\u00e6\u00f0i …<\/em> (Orwell, 2009, bls. 220-221)<\/p>\n

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    \u00deau d\u00e6mi sem Orwell tekur eru gj\u00f6r\u00f3l\u00edk d\u00e6minu af Pascal, en \u00e1hrifin eru \u00e1 vissan h\u00e1tt \u00feau s\u00f6mu. Sannleikurinn v\u00edkur, en hann v\u00edkur ekki fyrir alltof \u00edtarlegum l\u00fdsingum sem sni\u00f0ganga \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegar forsendur tungum\u00e1lsins, og heldur ekki fyrir lygi e\u00f0a hreinum \u00f3sannindum, heldur fyrir einhverju sem er hvorki satt n\u00e9 \u00f3satt. Calep Thompson l\u00fdsir \u00feessu \u00e1 eftirfarandi h\u00e1tt \u00ed greininni \u201ePhilosophy and the corruption of language\u201c.<\/p>\n

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    A\u00f0 nota or\u00f0i\u00f0 \u201ehetja\u201c \u00ed tilviki \u00fear sem ma\u00f0ur vill a\u00f0 einhver birtist \u00ed j\u00e1kv\u00e6\u00f0u lj\u00f3si, algj\u00f6rlega \u00f3h\u00e1\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed hva\u00f0 vi\u00f0komandi hefur gert, er a\u00f0 afm\u00e1 allt nema tilfinningalegt inntak \u00feess. Or\u00f0i\u00f0 fer \u00fe\u00e1 a\u00f0 merkja \u00ed senn ekkert og hva\u00f0 sem er.<\/em> (Thompson, 1992, bls. 20)<\/p>\n

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    \u00c1\u00f0ur en lengra er haldi\u00f0 me\u00f0 greiningu \u00e1 bulli, er r\u00e9tt a\u00f0 sko\u00f0a nokkur raunveruleg d\u00e6mi. L\u00edtum fyrst \u00e1 nokkur tilvik \u00far d\u00e6miger\u00f0ri p\u00f3lit\u00edskri or\u00f0r\u00e6\u00f0u. H\u00e9r talar forma\u00f0ur stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1laflokks \u00ed setningarr\u00e6\u00f0u \u00e1 landsfundi flokksins \u00ed upphafi \u00e1rs 2013:<\/p>\n

    \n

    Ef vi\u00f0 \u00edmyndum okkur a\u00f0 framfarir komi af sj\u00e1lfum s\u00e9r munum vi\u00f0 ekki a\u00f0eins standa \u00ed sta\u00f0 heldur f\u00e6rast aftur \u00e1 bak. Sta\u00f0a okkar n\u00fa er l\u00edk \u00feeirri sem Roosevelt Bandar\u00edkjaforseti l\u00fdsti \u00feegar hann t\u00f3k vi\u00f0 emb\u00e6tti \u00ed heimskreppunni miklu, a\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed leyti a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 h\u00f6fum ekkert a\u00f0 \u00f3ttast nema \u00f3ttann sj\u00e1lfan. T\u00e6kif\u00e6ri \u00cdslendinga hafa aldrei veri\u00f0 jafnmikil og n\u00fa, en vi\u00f0 n\u00fdtum \u00feau ekki, nema vi\u00f0 tr\u00faum \u00e1 okkur sj\u00e1lf, tr\u00faum \u00e1 landi\u00f0 og \u00fej\u00f3\u00f0ina og framt\u00ed\u00f0 hennar. \u00dea\u00f0 er ekki langt s\u00ed\u00f0an \u00cdslendingar voru bl\u00e1f\u00e1t\u00e6k \u00fej\u00f3\u00f0. En eftir \u00e1ratuga bar\u00e1ttu hefur \u00cdsland skipa\u00f0 s\u00e9r \u00e1 bekk me\u00f0al fars\u00e6lustu \u00fej\u00f3\u00f0a heims.<\/em> (Sigmundur Dav\u00ed\u00f0 Gunnlaugsson, 2013)<\/p>\n

    \n

    \u00cd \u00feessum texta eru nokkur or\u00f0 e\u00f0a or\u00f0asamb\u00f6nd sem eiga a\u00f0 bera hitann og \u00feungann af \u00fev\u00ed sem sagt er, t.d. \u201eframfarir\u201c, \u201et\u00e6kif\u00e6ri\u201c, \u201etr\u00fa \u00e1 landi\u00f0 og \u00fej\u00f3\u00f0ina\u201c og \u201efars\u00e6ld\u201c. \u00deessi r\u00e6\u00f0a er ekki \u00f3l\u00edk m\u00f6rgum \u00f6\u00f0rum r\u00e6\u00f0um og raunar er vart h\u00e6gt a\u00f0 r\u00e1\u00f0a af \u00feessum or\u00f0um hver talar e\u00f0a \u00ed hva\u00f0a flokki hann er. En er \u00fea\u00f0 sem sagt er satt e\u00f0a \u00f3satt, tr\u00falegt e\u00f0a \u00f3tr\u00falegt, raunh\u00e6ft e\u00f0a \u00f3raunh\u00e6ft? Um \u00feetta ver\u00f0ur ekkert sagt vegna \u00feess a\u00f0 \u00fe\u00f3 svo a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0an hafi yfirbrag\u00f0 sta\u00f0reyndabundinnar or\u00f0r\u00e6\u00f0u, \u00fe\u00e1 skortir hana alla umhyggju fyrir sannleika. P\u00f3sit\u00edfistarnir \u00e1 fyrri hluta 20. aldar, me\u00f0 m\u00e6likvar\u00f0ann um sannreynslu a\u00f0 vopni, myndu eflaust d\u00e6ma \u00feessi or\u00f0 merkingarlaus r\u00e9tt eins og hverja a\u00f0ra sk\u00f3lafrumspeki (Ayer, 1946, \u00d3lafur P\u00e1ll J\u00f3nsson, 2012). Me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 d\u00e6ma r\u00e6\u00f0u stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lamannsins merkingarlausa hef\u00f0u p\u00f3sit\u00edfistarnir \u00fe\u00f3 gengi\u00f0 of langt, or\u00f0in eru ekki merkingarlaus. \u00dea\u00f0 sem er sagt er einhverskonar bull, en vissulega merkingarb\u00e6rt bull, \u00fev\u00ed \u00fea\u00f0 er bull jafnan.<\/p>\n

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    H\u00e9r er svo \u00f6nnur tilvitnun sem gengur jafn vel enn lengra \u00ed bullinu en s\u00fa fyrri:<\/p>\n

    \n

    Frams\u00f3knarflokkurinn er flokkur r\u00f3tt\u00e6krar r\u00f6khyggju. \u00deegar okkur \u00feykir blasa vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 eitthva\u00f0 s\u00e9 \u00f3r\u00e9ttl\u00e1tt e\u00f0a ska\u00f0legt berjumst vi\u00f0 gegn \u00fev\u00ed af \u00f6llu afli og \u00feegar vi\u00f0 h\u00f6fum komi\u00f0 auga \u00e1 t\u00e6kif\u00e6ri til a\u00f0 l\u00e1ta gott af okkur lei\u00f0a beitum vi\u00f0 okkur af einur\u00f0 fyrir \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 \u00feau t\u00e6kif\u00e6ri ver\u00f0i n\u00fdtt.<\/em> (Sigmundur Dav\u00ed\u00f0 Gunnlaugsson, 2012)<\/p>\n

    \n

    Or\u00f0asambandi\u00f0 sem h\u00f6fundurinn beitir s\u00e9rstaklega fyrir sig og ber uppi bulleinkenni efnisgreinarinnar er or\u00f0asambandi\u00f0 \u201er\u00f3tt\u00e6k r\u00f6khyggja\u201c. \u00deessu or\u00f0asambandi er \u00e6tla\u00f0 a\u00f0 senda \u00feau skilabo\u00f0 a\u00f0 s\u00e1 sem talar s\u00e9 einmitt ma\u00f0ur sem talar merkingar\u00ferungi\u00f0 m\u00e1l en \u00fea\u00f0 er samt mj\u00f6g erfitt a\u00f0 festa hendur \u00e1 hva\u00f0 \u00e1tt er vi\u00f0.<\/p>\n

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    Frankfurt veltir talsvert fyrir s\u00e9r muninum \u00e1 bulli og lygum. \u00cd fyrri tilvitnunni \u00ed stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1laor\u00f0r\u00e6\u00f0una, \u00fear sem r\u00e6\u00f0uma\u00f0urinn segir \u201evi\u00f0 h\u00f6fum ekkert a\u00f0 \u00f3ttast nema \u00f3ttann sj\u00e1lfan\u201c, \u00fe\u00e1 er \u00fea\u00f0 a\u00f0 vissu leyti auglj\u00f3slega \u00f3satt. Au\u00f0vita\u00f0 er margt sem vi\u00f0 \u00e6ttum a\u00f0 \u00f3ttast, sj\u00e1lft hruni\u00f0 s\u00fdndi okkur \u00fea\u00f0. Vi\u00f0 \u00e6ttum til d\u00e6mis a\u00f0 \u00f3ttast a\u00f0 gr\u00e1\u00f0ugir og almennt si\u00f0lausir menn taki fj\u00e1rm\u00e1l \u00fej\u00f3\u00f0arinnar \u00ed s\u00ednar hendur. Vi\u00f0 \u00e6ttum l\u00edka a\u00f0 \u00f3ttast a\u00f0 \u00f3\u00e1byrgir og skamms\u00fdnir stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lamenn va\u00f0i um n\u00e1tt\u00faruna eins og naut \u00ed flagi og virkji og spilli, eins og \u00fdmsir \u00feeirra hafa reyndar lagt til a\u00f0 ver\u00f0i gert. En \u00fea\u00f0 er ekki \u00feannig sem or\u00f0unum er teki\u00f0. Svipa\u00f0 m\u00e1 segja um setninguna \u201eFrams\u00f3knar\u00adflokkurinn er flokkur r\u00f3ttt\u00e6krar r\u00f6khyggju\u201c \u00ed seinni tilvitnunni. H\u00fan er beinl\u00ednis \u00f3s\u00f6nn, a.m.k. ef vi\u00f0 skiljum or\u00f0i\u00f0 \u201er\u00f6khyggja\u201c vi\u00f0teknum skilningi heimspekinnar. Og \u00e9g veit ekki til \u00feess a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 s\u00e9 til nein \u00f6nnur vi\u00f0tekin merking \u00feess or\u00f0s. Alltjent reynir m\u00e6landinn ekki a\u00f0 \u00fatsk\u00fdra \u00fea\u00f0 n\u00e1nar. \u00deannig vir\u00f0ist bulli\u00f0 oft vera lyginni l\u00edkt, en samt \u00e1n \u00feess a\u00f0 vera beinl\u00ednis lygi. Frankfurt l\u00fdsir muninum svona:<\/p>\n

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    \u00dea\u00f0 sem bull l\u00fdsir ranglega er \u00ed rauninni hvorki kringumst\u00e6\u00f0urnar sem \u00fea\u00f0 v\u00edsar til n\u00e9 sko\u00f0anir m\u00e6landans \u00e1 \u00feessum kringumst\u00e6\u00f0um. \u00deetta er \u00fea\u00f0 sem lygi l\u00fdsir ranglega \u00ed krafti \u00feess a\u00f0 vera \u00f3s\u00f6nn. \u00dear sem bull \u00fearf ekki a\u00f0 vera \u00f3satt \u00fe\u00e1 er \u00fea\u00f0 \u00f3l\u00edkt lyginni hva\u00f0 var\u00f0ar \u00fe\u00e1 \u00e6tlun a\u00f0 l\u00fdsa ranglega. Bullarinn \u00fearf ekki endilega a\u00f0 blekkja okkur, og \u00fea\u00f0 \u00fearf ekki a\u00f0 hafa veri\u00f0 \u00e6tlun hans, hvorki um sta\u00f0reyndirnar sj\u00e1lfar e\u00f0a um \u00fea\u00f0 hverjar hann telur sta\u00f0reyndirnar vera. \u00dea\u00f0 sem hann \u00e6tlar s\u00e9r nau\u00f0synlega a\u00f0 blekkja okkur um er fyrir\u00e6tlun hans. \u00dea\u00f0 eina sem \u00f3fr\u00e1v\u00edkjanlega einkennir hann er a\u00f0 hann l\u00fdsir ranglega hva\u00f0 hann hyggst fyrir.<\/em> (Frankfurt, 2005, bls. 54)<\/p>\n

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    Frankfurt bendir \u00e1 a\u00f0 \u00ed venjulegri lygi er villt til um tvennt. S\u00e1 sem l\u00fdgur \u00fev\u00ed \u00e1 \u00feri\u00f0judegi a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 s\u00e9 mi\u00f0vikudagur, hann l\u00fdsir ranglega \u00fev\u00ed hva\u00f0a dagur er<\/i> og villir einnig um fyrir \u00e1heyrendum s\u00ednum um hva\u00f0a dagur hann heldur a\u00f0 s\u00e9<\/i>. Frankfurt bendir s\u00ed\u00f0an \u00e1 a\u00f0 bullarinn geri \u00feetta ekki og \u00fev\u00ed s\u00e9 hans fyrir\u00e6tlun \u00f6nnur en lygarans. Vi\u00f0 sj\u00e1um \u00feetta vel ef vi\u00f0 sko\u00f0um d\u00e6min a\u00f0 ofan, hvort heldur d\u00e6mi\u00f0 fr\u00e1 Pascal e\u00f0a r\u00e6\u00f0ur stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lamannsins. Pascal var auglj\u00f3slega ekki a\u00f0 reyna a\u00f0 telja Wittgenstein tr\u00fa um a\u00f0 henni li\u00f0i eins og hundi sem eki\u00f0 hef\u00f0i veri\u00f0 yfir, og stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1la\u00adma\u00f0urinn er heldur ekki a\u00f0 reyna a\u00f0 telja f\u00f3lki tr\u00fa um a\u00f0 ekkert s\u00e9 a\u00f0 \u00f3ttast e\u00f0a a\u00f0 flokkurinn a\u00f0hyllist s\u00e9rstaka tegund af r\u00f6khyggju.<\/p>\n

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    Bull og skeytingarleysi um g\u00f6gn<\/i><\/p>\n

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    Stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1laumr\u00e6\u00f0a er einnig morandi af bulli sem er til komi\u00f0 af enn \u00f6\u00f0rum \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0um. Eftirfarandi d\u00e6mi um \u00feetta er \u00far kosningaumr\u00e6\u00f0u fyrir Al\u00feingiskosningarnar 2013. H\u00e9r er fr\u00e9tt af vef R\u00edkis\u00fatvarpsins:<\/p>\n

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    Bjarni Benediktsson forma\u00f0ur Sj\u00e1lfst\u00e6\u00f0isflokksins segir a\u00f0 \u00feriggja \u00ferepa skattkerfi\u00f0 ekki ganga upp. L\u00e6kka \u00feurfi tekjuskattinn og einfalda skatt\u00ferepin. Lyfta \u00feurfi launamarka\u00f0inum upp fr\u00e1 botninum og hafa hvetjandi skattkerfi en ekki letjandi eins og n\u00fa er.<\/em> (RUV, 2013)<\/p>\n

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    Fj\u00f6l\u00ferepa skattkerfi var teki\u00f0 upp \u00e1 \u00cdslandi \u00e1ri\u00f0 2009 og \u00ed umr\u00e6\u00f0unni \u00fe\u00e1 skrifa\u00f0i J\u00f3n Steinsson hagfr\u00e6\u00f0ingur vi\u00f0 Columbia h\u00e1sk\u00f3lann \u00ed New York grein \u00ed Fr\u00e9ttabla\u00f0i\u00f0<\/i> undir yfirskriftinni \u201eEr fj\u00f6l\u00ferepaskattkerfi okkur ofvi\u00f0a?\u201c. \u00cd greininni segir hann m.a.:<\/p>\n

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    A\u00f0 \u00feessu leyti er umr\u00e6\u00f0a um skattam\u00e1l \u00e1 \u00cdslandi afskaplega fr\u00e1brug\u00f0in umr\u00e6\u00f0u um skattam\u00e1l \u00ed \u00f6\u00f0rum efnu\u00f0um r\u00edkjum. \u00dea\u00f0 vill nefnilega svo til a\u00f0 \u00f6ll \u00f6nnur efnu\u00f0 OECD-r\u00edki b\u00faa vi\u00f0 fj\u00f6l\u00ferepaskattkerfi. \u00cdsland er b\u00f3kstaflega eina r\u00edki\u00f0 \u00ed Vestur-Evr\u00f3pu sem ekki starfr\u00e6kir sl\u00edkt skattkerfi. \u00cd flestum OECD-r\u00edkjum eru fleiri en \u00ferj\u00fa skatt\u00ferep. \u00cd Bandar\u00edkjunum eru til d\u00e6mis sex skatt\u00ferep. Og p\u00f3lit\u00edsk umr\u00e6\u00f0a \u00fear \u00ed landi er \u00feannig a\u00f0 meira a\u00f0 segja George W. Bush voga\u00f0i s\u00e9r aldrei a\u00f0 leggja til veigamiklar breytingar \u00e1 fj\u00f6lda \u00ferepa. \u00dear \u00ed landi teljast r\u00f6kin um auki\u00f0 fl\u00e6kjustig fj\u00f6l\u00ferepaskattkerfis l\u00e9ttv\u00e6g \u00ed samanbur\u00f0i vi\u00f0 \u00f6nnur r\u00f6k (b\u00e6\u00f0i me\u00f0 og \u00e1 m\u00f3ti).<\/em> (J\u00f3n Steinsson, 2009)<\/p>\n

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    Hva\u00f0 sem um fj\u00f6l\u00ferepa skattkerfi m\u00e1 segja \u00fe\u00e1 er alveg lj\u00f3st a\u00f0 sl\u00edk kerfi ganga vel upp. \u00dea\u00f0 er meira a\u00f0 segja svo auglj\u00f3st a\u00f0 Bjarni Benediktsson gat alls ekki b\u00faist vi\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 nokkur t\u00e6ki or\u00f0 hans b\u00f3kstaflega, \u00fe.e. sem sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingu um m\u00f6gulegar \u00fatf\u00e6rslur \u00e1 skattkerfi. \u00dea\u00f0 er \u00fev\u00ed hvorki h\u00e6gt a\u00f0 l\u00edta svo \u00e1 a\u00f0 Bjarni hafi l\u00fdst eigin sannf\u00e6ringu n\u00e9 a\u00f0 hann fari\u00f0 me\u00f0 hef\u00f0bundnar lygar, \u00fev\u00ed lygar gera r\u00e1\u00f0 fyrir \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 sem sagt er s\u00e9 tr\u00faanlegt.<\/p>\n

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    \u00cd or\u00f0um Bjarna Benediktssonar um a\u00f0 \u00feriggja \u00ferepa skattkerfi gangi ekki upp h\u00f6fum \u00fev\u00ed d\u00e6mi um sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingu sem er sk\u00fdr og gerir r\u00e1\u00f0 fyrir \u00feekkingarfr\u00e6\u00f0ilegum forsendum sem eru alls ekki \u00f3h\u00f3flegar en samt er \u00fea\u00f0 sem sagt er \u00f3n\u00e6mt fyrir \u00feeim g\u00f6gnum sem til sta\u00f0ar eru. Taki einhver or\u00f0in b\u00f3kstaflega og bendi \u00e1 a\u00f0 um auglj\u00f3s \u00f3sannindi s\u00e9 a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a, eins og t.d. J\u00f3ns Steinsson haf\u00f0i gert \u00feegar samskonar sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingar voru settar fram nokkrum \u00e1rum fyrr, \u00fe\u00e1 er sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingin ekki dregin til baka heldur l\u00e1ti\u00f0 sem ekkert s\u00e9 og sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingin jafnvel endurtekin vi\u00f0 n\u00e6sta t\u00e6kif\u00e6ri.<\/p>\n

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    Bulli\u00f0 \u00ed stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lunum<\/b><\/p>\n

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    Greining Frankfurts \u00e1 bulli er b\u00e6\u00f0i v\u00f6ndu\u00f0 og skemmtileg \u2013 og gagnleg a\u00f0 auki. En af hverju skyldi samt vera svona miki\u00f0 bull \u00ed stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lum? Undir lok b\u00f3karinnar tilgreinir Frankfurt \u00ferennskonar \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0ur fyrir \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 skuli vera jafn miki\u00f0 af bulli \u00ed samt\u00edm\u00adanum og raun ber vitni. (1) Fyrsta \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0an er s\u00fa, a\u00f0 mj\u00f6g oft koma upp kringumst\u00e6\u00f0ur \u00fear sem einhver ney\u00f0ist til a\u00f0 tala um hluti sem hann hefur ekki vit \u00e1 hvetji til bulls. (2) \u00d6nnur \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0an, sem er reyndar skyld \u00feeirri fyrri, er s\u00fa a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 er vi\u00f0tekin sko\u00f0un a\u00f0 \u00e1 borgurunum hv\u00edli s\u00fa l\u00fd\u00f0r\u00e6\u00f0islega \u00e1byrg\u00f0 a\u00f0 tj\u00e1 sig um m\u00e1lefni \u00fej\u00f3\u00f0arinnar. (3) \u00deri\u00f0ja \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0an liggur \u00ed efahyggju sem neitar \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 h\u00f6fum a\u00f0gang a\u00f0 hlutl\u00e6gum veruleika og hafna \u00fear af lei\u00f0andi \u00feeirri hugmynd a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 getum vita\u00f0 hvernig hlutirnir eru \u00ed raun og veru.<\/p>\n

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    \u00d6nnur \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0an sem Frankfurt nefnir, s\u00fa a\u00f0 f\u00f3lki finnist \u00fea\u00f0 n\u00e1nst kn\u00fai\u00f0 til a\u00f0 tj\u00e1 sig um p\u00f3lit\u00edsk m\u00e1lefni \u00e1n \u00feess \u00fe\u00f3 a\u00f0 hafa vit \u00e1 \u00feeim, sk\u00fdrir au\u00f0vita\u00f0 hluta af bullinu. En \u00feessi \u00e1st\u00e6\u00f0a sk\u00fdrir ekki hvers vegna atvinnustj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lamenn ganga jafnvel lengst \u00ed bullinu, \u00fer\u00e1tt fyrir a\u00f0 hafa helga\u00f0 sig stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lunum, hafa jafnvel unni\u00f0 \u00e1 \u00feeim vettvangi \u00ed fj\u00f6lda \u00e1ra, og hafa a\u00f0gang a\u00f0 margv\u00edslegum s\u00e9rfr\u00e6\u00f0ingum og uppl\u00fdsingaveitum. Hvers vegna er bulli\u00f0 ekki bara leikmannsgaman, heldur alvara atvinnumannanna? H\u00e9r sleppir greiningu Frankfurts, en inns\u00e6i Orwells tekur vi\u00f0.<\/p>\n

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    \u00cd greininni \u201eRith\u00f6fundar og lev\u00edatan\u201c veltir Orwell fyrir s\u00e9r ritsko\u00f0un og \u00fev\u00ed hvort og hvernig rith\u00f6fundar geta teki\u00f0 p\u00f3lit\u00edska \u00e1byrg\u00f0. Framarlega \u00ed greininni segir hann m.a.:<\/p>\n

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    En a\u00f0 gangast vi\u00f0 p\u00f3lit\u00edskri \u00e1byrg\u00f0 n\u00fa \u00e1 d\u00f6gum \u00fe\u00fd\u00f0ir \u00fev\u00ed mi\u00f0ur a\u00f0 ma\u00f0ur beygir sig undir b\u00f3kstafskreddur og \u201eflokksl\u00ednur\u201c, me\u00f0 \u00f6llu \u00fev\u00ed hugleysi og \u00feeirri \u00f3r\u00e1\u00f0vendni sem \u00fea\u00f0 felur \u00ed s\u00e9r. Andst\u00e6tt rith\u00f6fundum Viktor\u00edut\u00edmans er okkur \u00fea\u00f0 til \u00f3hagr\u00e6\u00f0is a\u00f0 b\u00faa vi\u00f0 klippta og skorna p\u00f3lit\u00edska hugmyndafr\u00e6\u00f0i af \u00fdmsu tagi og a\u00f0 vita yfirleitt undireins hva\u00f0a hugsanir eru villutr\u00faarhugsanir.<\/em> (Orwell, 2009, bls. 288)<\/p>\n

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    \u00deessi hugmyndafr\u00e6\u00f0i sem er svo klippt og skorin afmarkar \u00ed raun hva\u00f0 h\u00e6gt er a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a um. \u00deessi afm\u00f6rkun byggist ekki \u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 \u00feeir sem a\u00f0hyllast annarskonar hugmyndafr\u00e6\u00f0i va\u00f0i fram me\u00f0 gagnr\u00fdni og geri manni l\u00edfi\u00f0 \u00f3b\u00e6rilegt, heldur a\u00f0 einmitt \u00feeir sem henni tilheyra afmarka hva\u00f0 er t\u00e6kt til umr\u00e6\u00f0u og hva\u00f0a sko\u00f0anir er leyfilegt a\u00f0 setja fram. Um \u00feetta tekur hann m.a. d\u00e6mi af bresku heimsvaldastefnunni, d\u00e6mi sem m\u00e1 heimf\u00e6ra upp\u00e1 samt\u00edmann me\u00f0 \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 skipta breska heimsveldinu \u00fat fyrir Vesturl\u00f6nd og n\u00fdlendu\u00adk\u00faguninni \u00fat fyrir ar\u00f0r\u00e1n \u00e1 n\u00e1tt\u00farunni. Gefum Orwell aftur or\u00f0i\u00f0:<\/p>\n

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    Allar g\u00f6tur fr\u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed \u00e1 n\u00edtj\u00e1ndu \u00f6ld h\u00f6f\u00f0u \u00fej\u00f3\u00f0artekjur okkar, sem a\u00f0 hluta ultu \u00e1 \u00e1v\u00f6xtun af erlendum fj\u00e1rfestingum, og \u00e1 \u00f6ruggum m\u00f6rku\u00f0um og \u00f3d\u00fdrum hr\u00e1efnum \u00ed n\u00fdlendum, veri\u00f0 g\u00edfurlega \u00f3tryggar. \u00dea\u00f0 var \u00e1rei\u00f0anlegt a\u00f0 fyrr e\u00f0a s\u00ed\u00f0ar f\u00e6ri eitthva\u00f0 \u00farskei\u00f0is og vi\u00f0 yr\u00f0um kn\u00fain til a\u00f0 koma \u00e1 jafnv\u00e6gi \u00ed \u00fatflutningi okkar og innflutningi: og \u00feegar af \u00fev\u00ed yr\u00f0i hlytu l\u00edfskj\u00f6r Breta, \u00fear \u00e1 me\u00f0al l\u00edfskj\u00f6r verkal\u00fd\u00f0sins, a\u00f0 ver\u00f0a lakari, a\u00f0 minnsta kosti um t\u00edma. Samt l\u00f6g\u00f0u vinstrisinnu\u00f0u stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1laflokkarnir \u00feessar sta\u00f0reyndir aldrei \u00e1 bor\u00f0i\u00f0, jafnvel ekki me\u00f0an \u00feeir gengu hva\u00f0 h\u00e1v\u00e6rast fram gegn heimsvaldastefnunni.<\/em> (Orwell, 2009, bls. 292)<\/p>\n

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    Orwell heldur svo \u00e1fram:<\/p>\n

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    N\u00fa vir\u00f0ist \u00fea\u00f0 nokku\u00f0 lj\u00f3st a\u00f0 svo er komi\u00f0 a\u00f0 ekki er h\u00e6gt a\u00f0 vi\u00f0halda l\u00edfskj\u00f6rum verkal\u00fd\u00f0sins, hva\u00f0 \u00fe\u00e1 b\u00e6ta \u00feau. Jafnvel \u00fe\u00f3tt vi\u00f0 kreistum hina r\u00edku til \u00f3l\u00edfis, ver\u00f0ur allur fj\u00f6ldinn anna\u00f0hvort a\u00f0 draga \u00far neyslunni e\u00f0a framlei\u00f0a meira. E\u00f0a er \u00e9g a\u00f0 \u00fdkja klandri\u00f0 sem vi\u00f0 erum \u00ed? \u00dea\u00f0 kann a\u00f0 vera, og hafi \u00e9g \u00e1 r\u00f6ngu a\u00f0 standa, mun \u00e9g taka \u00fev\u00ed fagnandi. En \u00fea\u00f0 sem \u00e9g vil leggja \u00e1herslu \u00e1 er a\u00f0 me\u00f0al \u00feess f\u00f3lks sem s\u00fdnir vinstrihreyfingunni hollustu er ekki h\u00e6gt a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a \u00feetta m\u00e1l af hreinskilni<\/em>. (Orwell, 2009, bls. 293)<\/p>\n

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    H\u00e9r er komi\u00f0 a\u00f0 kjarnanum \u00ed \u00fev\u00ed sem mig langar a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a: \u00cd stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lum er ekki h\u00e6gt a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a um sum m\u00e1l af hreinskilni. \u00deeir sem taka \u00fe\u00e1tt \u00ed stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lum gangast vi\u00f0 \u00feessu, ekki bara vinstrimenn heldur allir. Calep Thomspon segir a\u00f0 \u00ed stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lum v\u00edki sannleikurinn fyrir metor\u00f0um.<\/p>\n

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    Almennt tala\u00f0 \u00fe\u00e1 er or\u00f0r\u00e6\u00f0u stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lanna \u00e6tla\u00f0 a\u00f0 st\u00fdra skynjun f\u00f3lks \u00e1 a\u00f0st\u00e6\u00f0um \u00e1 \u00feann h\u00e1tt sem samr\u00fdmist hagsmunum stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lamannsins og flokki hans, hagsmunum sem \u00feurfa ekki a\u00f0 vera samr\u00fdmanlegir hagsmunum \u00e1heyrenda. Sl\u00edkri or\u00f0r\u00e6\u00f0u er ekki \u00e6tla\u00f0 a\u00f0 kveikja huglei\u00f0ingar um m\u00e1l, heldur frekar a\u00f0 losa \u00feau undan \u00feeirri kv\u00f6\u00f0 a\u00f0 vera tekin til athugunar. \u00deegar verst gegnir er l\u00edtil e\u00f0a engin \u00e1hugi \u00e1 tengslum \u00e1 milli \u00feess sem talar og hva\u00f0 hann segir, e\u00f0a \u00feess sem sagt er og \u00feess hvernig hlutirnir eru. N\u00e1kv\u00e6mni tungum\u00e1lsins er kasta\u00f0 fyrir \u00e1hrifam\u00e1tt \u00feess; sannleikurinn v\u00edkur fyrir metor\u00f0agirnd.<\/em> (Thompson, 1992, bls. 19)<\/p>\n

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    L\u00fdsing Thomspons \u00e1 or\u00f0r\u00e6\u00f0u stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lanna, sem hann r\u00f6ksty\u00f0ur a\u00f0 verulegu leyti me\u00f0 v\u00edsun til hugmynda Orwells, er s\u00ed\u00f0ur en svo j\u00e1kv\u00e6\u00f0 \u00fe\u00f3tt h\u00fan s\u00e9 kannski ofur hversdags\u00adleg. Rifjum n\u00fa sem sn\u00f6ggvast upp skilgreininguna \u00e1 v\u00edsindum sem \u00e9g haf\u00f0i eftir Mikael M. Karlssyni \u00ed upphafi greinarinnar:<\/p>\n

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    V\u00edsindi eru kerfisbundin og gagnr\u00fdnin leit a\u00f0 vi\u00f0eigandi skilningi \u00e1 l\u00f6gm\u00e1lsbundnum fyrirb\u00e6rum sem \u00e1 s\u00e9r sta\u00f0 innan ramma vi\u00f0urkenndra almennra vi\u00f0mi\u00f0a um hva\u00f0 telst s\u00f6nnunarg\u00f6gn og hvernig skuli fara me\u00f0 sl\u00edk g\u00f6gn.<\/em><\/p>\n

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    Hvernig g\u00e6ti vi\u00f0l\u00edka skilgreining \u00e1 stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lum veri\u00f0? \u00c9g veit \u00fea\u00f0 ekki, en \u00fe\u00f3 vir\u00f0ist m\u00e9r a\u00f0 \u00fear sem v\u00edsindin tala um \u201eramma vi\u00f0urkenndra almennra vi\u00f0mi\u00f0a um hva\u00f0 telst s\u00f6nnungarg\u00f6gn og hvernig skuli fara me\u00f0 sl\u00edk g\u00f6gn\u201c \u00fe\u00e1 einkannast stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lin af annarskonar ramma um hvernig skuli fara me\u00f0 g\u00f6gn og sta\u00f0reyndir. \u00cd stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1laumr\u00e6\u00f0u er til sta\u00f0ar einhverskonar rammi vi\u00f0urkenndra almennra vi\u00f0mi\u00f0a um hvernig megi tala, hva\u00f0 megi nefna og hvernig s\u00e9 vi\u00f0eigandi a\u00f0 breg\u00f0ast vi\u00f0. Lykilatri\u00f0i er a\u00f0 me\u00f0al \u00feeirra sem a\u00f0hyllast eina e\u00f0a a\u00f0ra hugmyndafr\u00e6\u00f0i, sty\u00f0ja einn e\u00f0a annan flokk e\u00f0a fylkingu, \u00fe\u00e1 eru alltaf einhver m\u00e1l sem ekki er h\u00e6gt a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a um af hreinskilni. Orwell l\u00fdsir \u00feessu vel \u00feegar hann veltir \u00fev\u00ed fyrir s\u00e9r hva\u00f0 s\u00e9 b\u00f3kmenntalegt vi\u00f0brag\u00f0 vi\u00f0 b\u00f3k. Hann segir:<\/p>\n

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    Raunveruleg vi\u00f0br\u00f6g\u00f0 manns vi\u00f0 b\u00f3k, ef h\u00fan yfirleitt vekur einhver vi\u00f0br\u00f6g\u00f0 hj\u00e1 manni, eru alla jafna \u00e1 \u00feessa lei\u00f0: \u201eM\u00e9r l\u00edkar \u00feessi b\u00f3k\u201c e\u00f0a \u201eM\u00e9r l\u00edkar h\u00fan ekki\u201c, og \u00fea\u00f0 sem \u00e1 eftir kemur er r\u00e9ttl\u00e6ting. En a\u00f0 segja \u201eM\u00e9r l\u00edkar \u00feessi b\u00f3k\u201c er ekki, a\u00f0 \u00e9g held, \u00f3b\u00f3kmenntalegt vi\u00f0brag\u00f0; hi\u00f0 \u00f3b\u00f3kmenntalega vi\u00f0brag\u00f0 er: \u201e\u00deessi b\u00f3k er m\u00e9r hli\u00f0holl, og \u00feess vegna ver\u00f0 \u00e9g a\u00f0 sj\u00e1 kosti \u00e1 henni.\u201c<\/em> (Orwell, 2009, bls. 286\u2013287)<\/p>\n

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    \u00de\u00f3tt v\u00edsindi og stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1l s\u00e9u a\u00f0 m\u00f6rgu leyti samb\u00e6rleg svi\u00f0 mannlegra samskipta, eins og sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingarnar sex sem \u00e9g setti fram \u00ed upphafi greinarinnar bera me\u00f0 s\u00e9r, \u00fe\u00e1 er samt s\u00e1 munur \u00e1 \u00feessum tveimur svi\u00f0um sem Orwell dregur fram. \u00cd v\u00edsindum er h\u00e6gt a\u00f0 r\u00e6\u00f0a af hreinskilni og spurningin um hvort eitthva\u00f0 s\u00e9 manni hli\u00f0hollt er ekki r\u00edkjandi (\u00fe\u00f3tt h\u00fan s\u00e9 vissulega til sta\u00f0ar). \u00cd stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lum ver\u00f0ur a\u00f0alatri\u00f0i\u00f0 hins vegar hva\u00f0 s\u00e9 manni hli\u00f0hollt og fyrir \u00fev\u00ed ver\u00f0ur hreinskilnin a\u00f0 v\u00edkja. \u00dea\u00f0 m\u00e1 \u00fev\u00ed kannski segja sem svo, a\u00f0 \u00e1 me\u00f0an hi\u00f0 almenna samkomulag sem v\u00edsindin byggjast \u00e1 feli \u00ed s\u00e9r vi\u00f0urkenningu \u00e1 a\u00f0fer\u00f0afr\u00e6\u00f0ilegum vi\u00f0mi\u00f0um og reglum sem eiga a\u00f0 stu\u00f0la a\u00f0 hlutl\u00e6gni, \u00fe\u00e1 einkennist stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lin af almennu samkomulagi um a\u00f0 gera sannleikann bitlausan.<\/p>\n

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    Stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1l og si\u00f0leysi<\/b><\/p>\n

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    \u00cd fyrirlestri Mikaels M. Karlssonar, \u201eSi\u00f0as\u00fapan: Skilabo\u00f0 til \u00feeirra sem sitja \u00ed s\u00fapunni\u201c, setti hann fram hugmynd um \u00fea\u00f0 hvernig m\u00e6tti afmarka svi\u00f0 si\u00f0fer\u00f0isins, e\u00f0a m.\u00f6.o. hvernig m\u00e6tti afmarka vi\u00f0fangsefni si\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0innar. \u00cd fyrirlestrinum sag\u00f0i Mikael m.a.:<\/p>\n

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    \u00c9g legg til a\u00f0 si\u00f0fer\u00f0i \u00ed \u00feeim skilningi sem leita\u00f0 er a\u00f0 h\u00e9r l\u00fati a\u00f0 grundvallar\u00adskilyr\u00f0um viljugra mannlegra samskipta eins og \u00e9g k\u00fds a\u00f0 kalla \u00feau.<\/em> (Mikael M. Karlsson, 2013)<\/p>\n

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    N\u00fa langar mig a\u00f0 nota \u00feetta vi\u00f0mi\u00f0 Mikaels til a\u00f0 greina \u00fea\u00f0 svi\u00f0 mannlegra samskipta sem vi\u00f0 k\u00f6llum stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1l. Spurningin sem hann leggur til a\u00f0 vi\u00f0 spyrjum er \u00feessi: Hver eru grundvallar\u00adskilyr\u00f0i viljugra mannlegra samskipta? H\u00e9r er raunar tvennt til sko\u00f0unar. Annars vegar hva\u00f0 viljug samskipti s\u00e9u og hins vegar hva\u00f0 s\u00e9u grundvallarskilyr\u00f0i sl\u00edkra samskipta. Um hi\u00f0 fyrra sag\u00f0i hann m.a.:<\/p>\n

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    Viljug samskipti eru samskipti sem hver og einn m\u00f6gulegur \u00fe\u00e1tttakandi myndi fallast \u00e1 a\u00f0 vera a\u00f0ili a\u00f0, af frj\u00e1lsum og f\u00fasum vilja, \u00fer\u00e1tt fyrir fyrirsj\u00e1nlega \u00f3kosti, \u00f3\u00fe\u00e6gindi, e\u00f0a \u00f3j\u00f6fnu\u00f0, \u00fe\u00f3tt hann vissi ekki hva\u00f0a \u00fe\u00e1tt hann myndi taka \u00ed \u00feeim. Hann er sums\u00e9 a\u00f0 fallast \u00e1 \u00fea\u00f0 a\u00f0 hvar sem hann lenti \u00ed \u00feessum samskiptum myndi hann fara me\u00f0 a\u00f0ra eins og hann v\u00e6ri s\u00e1ttur vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 a\u00f0rir fari me\u00f0 hann.<\/em> (Mikael M. Karlsson, 2013)<\/p>\n

    \n

    Spurningin sem mig langar a\u00f0 spyrja er \u00feessi: Getur veri\u00f0 a\u00f0 samskipti, \u00fear sem sannleikur\u00adinn er bitlaust og hreinskilni er viki\u00f0 til hli\u00f0ar, s\u00e9u viljug mannleg samskipti \u00ed \u00feessum skilningi? Ef vi\u00f0 sv\u00f6rum \u00feessari spurningu neitandi en f\u00f6llumst jafnframt \u00e1 afm\u00f6rkun Mikaels \u00e1 si\u00f0fer\u00f0inu, \u00fe\u00e1 h\u00f6fum vi\u00f0 komist a\u00f0 \u00feeirri ni\u00f0urst\u00f6\u00f0u a\u00f0 stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lin s\u00e9u si\u00f0laus. Og \u00feau eru \u00fe\u00e1 si\u00f0laus ekki bara vegna \u00feess a\u00f0 tilteknir stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lamenn s\u00e9u si\u00f0lausir heldur vegna \u00feess \u00fea\u00f0 er byggt inn \u00ed hva\u00f0a stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lamenningu sem er, sem l\u00fdtur \u00feeim samskipta\u00adhef\u00f0um sem Orwell l\u00fdsir, a\u00f0 stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lin hlj\u00f3ti a\u00f0 vera si\u00f0laus. Og stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lin eru ekki bara si\u00f0laus, \u00feau eru l\u00edka vitlaus og bygg\u00f0a \u00e1 bulli.<\/p>\n

    \n

    En kannski \u00e6ttum vi\u00f0 a\u00f0 svara spurningunni j\u00e1tandi, \u00fe.e. j\u00e1ta \u00fev\u00ed a\u00f0 samskipti \u00fear sem sannleikurinn er bitlaus og hreinskilni hefur veri\u00f0 viki\u00f0 til hli\u00f0ar, geti veri\u00f0 viljug mannleg samskipti. Vi\u00f0 vitum j\u00fa vel a\u00f0 margv\u00edsleg bullsamskipti eru d\u00e6mi um samskipti sem f\u00f3lk fellst \u00e1 a\u00f0 vera a\u00f0ili a\u00f0 af frj\u00e1lsum og f\u00fasum vilja, \u00fer\u00e1tt fyrir fyrirsj\u00e1nlega \u00f3kosti. Stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lin eru \u00fe\u00e1 kannski ekki utan vi\u00f0 si\u00f0fer\u00f0i\u00f0 heldur hluti af \u00fev\u00ed, en kannski ekki hluti af \u00feesskonar si\u00f0fer\u00f0i sem vi\u00f0 hef\u00f0um kosi\u00f0.<\/p>\n

    \n

    \n

    \n

    Heimildir<\/b><\/p>\n

    \n

    Ayer, Alfred J. (1946). Language, Truth and Logic<\/i>, \u00f6nnur \u00fatg. New York: Dver Publications.<\/p>\n

    \n

    Frankfurt, Harry G. (2005). On Bullshit<\/i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press.<\/p>\n

    \n

    J\u00f3n Steinsson. (2009). Er fj\u00f6l\u00ferepaskattkerfi okkur ofvi\u00f0a? Fr\u00e9ttabla\u00f0i\u00f0<\/i>, 03.12.2013. http:\/\/www.visir.is\/er-fjolthrepaskattkerfi-okkur-ofvida-\/article\/2009571345613<\/a> (S\u00f3tt 25.04.2013).<\/p>\n

    \n

    Mikael M. Karlsson. (\u00e1n dagsetningar). Si\u00f0as\u00fapan: Skilabo\u00f0a til \u00feeirra sem sitja \u00ed s\u00fapunni. Fyrirlestur \u00e1 vegum Si\u00f0fr\u00e6\u00f0istofnunar og Heimspekistofnunar, 1. mars 2013.<\/p>\n

    \n

    Mikael M. Karlsson. (\u00e1n dagsetningar). Science and social science. \u00d3prenta\u00f0 handrit.<\/p>\n

    \n

    Orwell, George. (2009). Stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1l og b\u00f3kmenntir<\/i>, Uggi J\u00f3nsson \u00fe\u00fdddi. Reykjav\u00edk: Hi\u00f0 \u00edslenzka b\u00f3kmenntaf\u00e9lag.<\/p>\n

    \n

    \u00d3lafur P\u00e1ll J\u00f3nsson. (2012). Fyrirlestrar um frumspeki<\/i>. Reykjav\u00edk: H\u00e1sk\u00f3la\u00fatg\u00e1fan.<\/p>\n

    \n

    R\u00f3bert H. Haraldsson. (2004). Frj\u00e1lsir andar: \u00d3t\u00edmab\u00e6rar huglei\u00f0ingar um sannleika, si\u00f0fer\u00f0i og tr\u00fa<\/i>. Reykjav\u00edk: H\u00e1sk\u00f3la\u00fatg\u00e1fan.<\/p>\n

    \n

    RUV. (2013). \u00deriggja \u00ferepa skattkerfi gangi ekki upp. ruv.is 02.04.2013. ruv.is\/frett\/thriggja-threpa-skattkerfi-gangi-ekki-upp (S\u00f3tt 29. apr\u00edl 2013)<\/p>\n

    \n

    Sigmundur Dav\u00ed\u00f0 Gunnlaugsson. (2013). Horfum til framt\u00ed\u00f0ar, horfum til framfara! R\u00e6\u00f0a vi\u00f0 setningu 32. flokks\u00feings frams\u00f3knarmanna. sigmundurdavid.is\/horfum-til-framtidar-horfum-til-framfara-raeda-vid-setningu-32-flokksthings-framsoknarmanna\/ (S\u00f3tt. 29. apr\u00edl 2013).<\/p>\n

    \n

    Sigmundur Dav\u00ed\u00f0 Gunnlaugsson. (2012). Verkefni framt\u00ed\u00f0arinnar: R\u00e6\u00f0a \u00e1 mi\u00f0stj\u00f3rnarfundi 17. n\u00f3vember 2012. http:\/\/sigmundurdavid.is\/verkefni-framtidarinnar-raeda-a-midstjornarfundi-17-november-2012\/<\/a> (S\u00f3tt 29. apr\u00edl 2013).<\/p>\n

    \n

    Thompson, Calep. (1992). Philosophy and the corruption of language. Philosophy<\/i>, 67, (259), bls. 19-31.<\/p>\n

    \n


    <\/p>\n
    \n
    \n

    [1]<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Mikaels M. Karlssonar, \u201eScience and social science\u201c, \u00f3prenta\u00f0 handrit.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    \n

    [2]<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 A\u00f0rir h\u00f6fundar hafa vitaskuld fjalla\u00f0 um \u00fea\u00f0 sem kalla\u00f0 hefur veri\u00f0 spilling tungum\u00e1lsins (e. corruption of language<\/i>) og m\u00e1 \u00fear nefna Simone Weil, Calep Thompson (Thompson, 1992) og svo au\u00f0vita\u00f0 \u00fdmsa heimspekinga sem kalla m\u00e1 sporg\u00f6ngumenn Wittgensteins me\u00f0 einum e\u00f0a \u00f6\u00f0rum h\u00e6tti. Af \u00edslenskum heimspekingum hefur R\u00f3bert H. Haraldsson einkum gert \u00feetta a\u00f0 s\u00e9rst\u00f6ku vi\u00f0fangsefni (R\u00f3bert H. Haraldsson, 2004).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

    \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

    \u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

    V\u00edsindi og stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1l sem svi\u00f0 mannlegra samskipta eiga margt sameiginlegt. Um b\u00e6\u00f0i \u00feessi svi\u00f0 gilda eftirfarandi sex sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingar: (1) F\u00f3lk setur fram sko\u00f0anir e\u00f0a sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingar. (2) \u00de\u00e6r sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingar sem f\u00f3lk setur fram eru um veruleikann. (3) F\u00f3lk gagnr\u00fdnir \u00fe\u00e6r sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingar sem settar eru fram um veruleikann. (4) F\u00f3lk notar margv\u00edsleg g\u00f6gn til a\u00f0 sty\u00f0ja \u00fea\u00f0 sem \u00fea\u00f0 heldur fram. (5) Mj\u00f6g f\u00e1ar sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingar, sem settar eru fram, eru \u00f3n\u00e6mar fyrir gagnr\u00fdni. (6) F\u00f3lk beitir almennum l\u00f6gm\u00e1lum e\u00f0a reglum til a\u00f0 skilja og r\u00f6ksty\u00f0ja \u00fea\u00f0 sem sta\u00f0h\u00e6fingarnar eru um. Stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1l og v\u00edsindi eru samt mj\u00f6g \u00f3l\u00edk svi\u00f0 mannlegra samskipta, m.a. vegna \u00feess a\u00f0 \u00fea\u00f0 er svo miklu meira bull \u00ed stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lum en \u00ed v\u00edsindum. \u00cd greininni nota \u00e9g hugmyndir fr\u00e1 Harry Frankfurt og Georg Orwell til a\u00f0 varpa lj\u00f3si \u00e1 hva\u00f0 bull s\u00e9 og hvers vegna \u00fea\u00f0 s\u00e9 jafn \u00fatbreytt og raunin er. Einnig nota \u00e9g hugmyndir Mikaels M. Karlssonar um afm\u00f6rkun si\u00f0fer\u00f0isins, til a\u00f0 varpa fram spurningum um si\u00f0fer\u00f0i stj\u00f3rnm\u00e1lavettvangsins, sem vettvangs sem einkennist af bulli.
    \n<\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":347,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_exactmetrics_skip_tracking":false,"_exactmetrics_sitenote_active":false,"_exactmetrics_sitenote_note":"","_exactmetrics_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[58],"tags":[710,470,224,709],"coauthors":[1138],"class_list":["post-247","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-c64-conference-paper","tag-bullshit","tag-communication","tag-morality","tag-science"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/247","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/347"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=247"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/247\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1296,"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/247\/revisions\/1296"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=247"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=247"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=247"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/nome.unak.is\/wordpress\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/coauthors?post=247"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}